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Woolen and Worsted 
Fabrics Glossary 




Containing instructions for 
the manufacture of every 
known grade and variety 
of Woolen and Worsted 
Fabrics. PRICE $3.00 




FRANiC P. BENNETT & CO., Inc. 

BOSTON NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO 
WASHINGTON LONDON, ENG. 



TSl62g" 
.B4 



*JVPY RIGHTED, 1914, BY 
FRANK P. BENNETT & CO., Inc. 






MAR 30 1914 



v- (£# 



l l f 



0£US71132 



/37 






Woolen and Worsted Glossary 



CONTAINING INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MANUFAC- 
TURE OF EVERY KNOWN GRADE AND 
VARIETY OF WOOLEN AND 
WORSTED FABRICS. 



Textile Fibres 



Students of the woolen and worsted 
industries who desire to obtain a 
fairly comprehensive knowledge of the 
subject must not only learn the va- 
rious processes of manufacture by 
means of which the numerous vari- 
eties and grades of stock are trans- 
formed into finished fabrics, but 
should also inform themselves as to 
the animals from which the wool and 
hair are derived. The nature and 
structure of the various fibres, the 
countries and climates inhabited by 
different types of sheep and other 
producers of the fibres used in cloth 
making should be studied. The do- 
mesticated sheep, whose ancestors 
once roamed wild over the mountains 
of Southern Europe, is the principal 
and 

MOST IMPORTANT 

source of supply, and the various 
breeds furnish wools from the finest 
Saxony to the extremely low-grade, 
coarse and hair-like carpet wools. In 
its wild state the fleece of the sheep 
was thickly interspersed with long, 
coarse, hair-like fibres, but care and 
attention to breeding has practically 
eliminated these, and in well-bred 
flocks they have disappeared rapidly. 
Sheep are commonly classified as long 



and short wooled varieties, a peculiar 
feature connected with the classifica- 
tion being the fact that the physical 
characteristics of these divisions show 
as great divergence as do the fleeces. 
The long-wooled varieties are usually 
of large body, while the short-wooled 
sheep are smaller, and lighter in 
weight, often with brown or black 
face and legs. Some of the best-known 
varieties of long-wooled sheep are the 
Cotswolds, Lincolns and Leicesters. 
LINCOLNS THE HEAVIEST. 
Of these the Lincolns produce the 
heaviest fleece and the longest wool, a 
not unusual weight for a single fleece 
being 18 to 20 pounds with a staple 20 
inches in length. The Cotswold usu- 
ally averages about ten pounds to the 
fleece, but much heavier fleeces are, 
not at all uncommon. The Leicester 
is somewhat smaller than the two 
previously named breeds, with a 
shorter and lighter fleece. The 
varieties of short-wooled sheep 
best known, perhaps, are the South- 
down, Hampshire Downs and Shrop- 
shires of the English breeds, the Sax- 
ony of Germany and the various 
merino types scattered over the 
world. The Saxony wool is the finest 
in the world. The fibre is covered 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



with innumerable fine scales or serra- 
tions, which make it a particularly 
good felting wool. 

Australian wools are of excellent 
quality, the finest termed Botany, then 
Port Philip, Sidney and Adelaide. 
These are all of the merino type, as 



many years. The shrinkage of these 
wools is very heavy, in some instances 
being as high as 75 per cent or more. 
This is not due entirely to the natu- 
ral grease or yolk contained in the 
wool, but to the large amount of dirl 
and foreign matter which clings to 




Lincoln Ewe. 



are the domestic wools of the United 
States. The principal classes of 

DOMESTIC WOOLS 
are the fleece wools, or, as they are 
sometimes termed, washed fleeces, 
bright wools, territories, Texas and 
Californias. Oftentimes the bright 
wools are included with the fleeces, 
though of a somewhat different char- 
acter. The Ohio, Pennsylvania and 
Michigan fleeces approximate very 
closely the Australian wools in fine- 
ness and felting properties, while the 
bright wools are slightly coarser and 
more lustrous. The territory wools are 
about the same grade as the fleeces, 
the name being derived from the fact 
that they are produced in the states 
in the West and Northwest which 
were under territorial government for 



the fibre. Texas wools are fine anc 
felt readily, as do the Californias. A 
considerable portion of the 

CROSSBRED WOOLS 
are grown in South America, though 
the Montevideo is fine and resembles 
the Australian in character. Asiatic 
wools are, for the most part, very 
coarse, and are used to a great ex- 
tent for carpets. Next in importance 
to the sheep as a source of textile 
fibres is the Angora goat, whose fleece 
is known as mohair. 

This is a long, white, silky fibrt 
with a bright metallic luster. An ex- 
tremely soft fibre is shorn from the 
cashmere goat and is invaluable fo: 
the production of certain types o: 
soft, fine textiles. This animal is 
native of a section of India, fron 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



which it receives its name. The al- 
paca is of the llama tribe, and is in- 
digenous to the mountainous regions 
of southern Peru. The fibre resembles 
mohair, and is especially distinguish- 
ed for its luster, softness and ex- 
treme length of staple. 

Another important fibre is camel's 
hair, the greater part of the supply 
coming from China and Russia, the 
former country furnishing a much su- 
perior grade. This stock is largely 



or imbrications of irregular sizes, 
overlapping each other, and tapering 
from root to tip. The growth is in a 
mass of fibres, termed locks, while 
hair grows, each fibre separate, with 
a smooth, flat surface. The number 
and fineness of the serration of the 
wool fibre determine largely its felting 
properties, therefore, it will be read- 
ily understood that the preservation of 
these imbrications intact during the 
manufacturing process is extremely 







American Merino Ram. 



used for combing, the noils being used 
for the manufacture of carded yarns 
for dress goods purposes. In recent 
years there has been a considerable 
quantity of calves' hair used in mak- 
ing certain types of fabrics. 

There is a very material difference 
between the 

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE 

of wool and hair, and herein lies the 
vast difference in the action of the 
fibres during the process of manufac- 
ture. Wool is soft, wavy and curly, 
flexible and elastic. Under the mi- 
croscope it appears as a cylinder, with 
a surface covered with minute scales, 



important. In its natural condition 
these scales or serrations of the wool 
fibre lie very close to the body or 
main stem, but under the influence of 
moisture they become soft and pli- 
able and extend at an angle which 
permits the serrations of other fibres 
to become interlocked with them, 
forming a compact mass. An idea of 
the extreme fineness of the fibre may 
be gained from the fact that there are 
from 2,700 to 2,800 serrations 
per inch in Saxony wool, while 1,900 
fibres will lie side by side in one 
inch. In general, it may be said that 
the best wool is that having the most 
serrations per inch, and that such 



8 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



wools possess the greatest felting 
properties, but there are exceptions. 
Under the microscope Cape wools 
apparently conform to all the require- 
ments of a fine felting wool, as does 
the Buenos Ayres, but the fulling 
value of these is much inferior to the 
Port Philip, which has a very similar 
mechanical structure. To the serra- 
tions and the fact that the center of 
the fibre is hollow is due the fact that 
wool has an exceptional capacity for 
absorbing and retaining coloring mat- 
ter. A very important and useful 
class of fibres are the so-called wool 



sired effects in woolen goods. Many 
very desirable fabrics are manufac- 
tured from mohair and camel's hair 
noil, the production of which would 
be impossible without their use. 
Thread waste is opeued and teased 
apart into loose fibres by means of 
the garnett machine, and for manufac- 
turing purposes is far superior 
to much of the new wool. No little of 
the present agitation relative to the 
use of these wool substitutes is the 
work of those who have but a 

SUPERFICIAL KNOWLEDGE 
of the subject, and whose diatribes 




Angora Goat. 



substitutes. Many writers in the pub- 
lic press have attempted to create 
the impression that it is unnecessary 
and harmful to use these, but such 
is not the case. They each have a 

FIT AND PROPER PLACE 
in textile manufacture. Among the 
most valuable of these are the vari- 
ous by-products resulting from the 
manufacture of worsted yarns. Of 
these, noil is the short fibre removed 
by the comb, and is a very valuable 
stock for use in producing carded 
woolens. It is produced in a variety 
of grades, and is usually mixed with 
other stocks, though many times it is 
used alone for the production of de- 



should have absolutely no weight. 
Probably the statement of the case 
by the eminent English authority, Mc- 
Laren, is one of the best ever writ- 
ten. During the course of a lecture 
on textiles he said: "A few words 
must here be said on remanufactured 
fibres, known to the world under the 
common name of shoddy. There are 
few more unreasonable and foolish 
prejudices than that against shoddy, 
and so far from it being a term of re- 
proach, it should really be one of 
praise, for the man who first brought 
shoddy into use has conferred an in- 
calculable benefit on the world, and 
enabled millions of persons to be 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



warmly and cheaply clothed, who must 
otherwise be shivering with cold. It 
would be as unreasonable to despise 
paper makers because they use up 
linen rags, or dyers who use up col- 
ors made from coal tar as to despise 
manufacturers who use up waste 
woolen rags as shoddy. It is said 




No. 1, Medium Grade Wool Fibre. No. 
2, Camel's Hair. No. 3, Kemp, or 
Diseased Fibre. No. 4, Merino. No. 
5, Mohair. 

that 125,000,000 pounds of shoddy, 
mungo, etc., are manufactured into 
cloth every year in England alone. 
If tbis immense quantity were wasted, 
it is difficult to estimate the increase 
which would take place in the price 
of wool and the 

CONSEQUENT DEARNESS 
of cloth, but the result would be that 
countless persons would be unable to 
afford proper clothing." The stock 
known under the name of shoddy is 
manufactured from woolen rags, and 
is simply wool that has been used for 
manufacturing cloth, then reduced to 
fibre for the purpose of reman- 
ufacturing. The staple is not so long 
as that of the original wool, but it may 
be used to good advantage in the pro- 
duction of many cloths. There are a 
variety of fabrics containing shoddy, 
whose wearing value would not be 
in the least improved were the shoddy 
replaced by the finest of fleece wool. 
Flocks are very short fibres, removed 
from the cloth by gigging, fulling or 
shearing. They are but little used ex- 
cept in the making of very low-grade 
goods. 

Card waste, as the name indicates, 



is made during the carding process, 
and is reworked into cheap fabrics. 
Extract is a form of shoddy made from 
rags containing cotton from which 
the vegetable fibres have been ex- 
tracted or removed by treatment 
with chemicals, usually sulphuric 
acid. This process, known as "car- 
bonizing," is also used to a consider- 
able extent for freeing wool from burs 
and other vegetable impurities. The 
method in common use is to provide a 
lead-lined tank to hold the carboniz- 
ing bath, into which a cage contain- 
ing the material to be treated is low- 
ered and completely submerged for 
8, sufficient length of time to allow 
the acid to thoroughly penetrate the 
mass. 

REGARDING THE BATH. 

The bath should be made with pure 
water, and acid sufficient to register 
from four to six degrees Twaddell. 
The cage is removed from the tank, 
the material extracted in an extractor 
used for no other purpose, with a 
galvanized basket, and provided with 
a suitable well, so that the liquor may 
be returned to the tank. The stock 
is then subjected to a heat of about 
180 degrees Fahrenheit, which re- 
duces the vegetable matter to car- 
bon. From the dryer the stock is tak- 
en to the carbonizing duster, where it 
passes between crush rolls, reducing 
the impurities to powder, which the 
action of the fan and beater of the 
dusting machine effectually removes. 
Unless the stock is to be immediately 
dyed, it must have an alkali bath to 
neutralize the effect of the acid treat- 
ment. No reference has been made 
to fur, as this is a fibre seldom or 
never used in textile manufacturing 
except in the making of felts. Its 
physical structure is somewhat simi- 
lar to wool, having some imbrications 
and good felting qualities, but is not 
easily spun. 

Mungo is a fibre manufactured from 
hard felted woolens, such as broad- 
cloths, overcoatings, etc., and has 
very little length with practically no 
felting properties. It is, next to flocks, 
the lowest type of wool substitute 
which it is practical to use in cloth 
making. 



10 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Wool Sorting and Scouring 



The first operation through which 
wool passes in the course of manufac- 
ture is the sorting. This does not 
mean that the fleeces are separated 
according to quality, but that the in- 
dividual ones are spread upon a suit- 
able bench or table and the various 
grades of wool contained in each sep- 
arated from each other and placed in 
receptacles provided for that purpose. 



becomes so stiff that unless warmed 
the fleeces cannot be opened out flat 
on the bench without tearing them 
apart. The fleece of a sheep, after be- 
ing sheared and before sorting, re- 
sembles the form or shape of the 
sbefiu. Figure 1 gives an idea of the 
various qualities or sorts that 
can be taken from a single fleece. 
It must be understood that wool from 
every variety and breed of sheep dif- 




Figure 1. Variety of Wools in Position in Which They Grow. 



The tools required are few and sim- 
ple, aside from the bench with its 
screen top, which allows loose dirt, 
straw or other foreign matter to drop 
through, a pair of wool sorter's shears 
for clipping off paint, tar, or burrs, be- 
ing the only implement needed. 

During the colder months it will be 
necessary to provide a rack, with 
steam pipes underneath, on which the 
fleeces may be piled to warm before 
they are sorted. This is necessitated 
by the fact that in cold weather the 
yolk or natural grease in the wool 



fers according to whether the fleece 
is from a coarse or fine breed, whether 
it is a cheviot or merino sheep, and 
that each fleece contains many grades 
of wool, in fact, the variation in a sin- 
gle fleece may be as great as that be- 
tween wool from two distinct vari- 
eties of sheep. Figure 1 is numbered 
to show the variety of wools in the 
position in which they grow and de- 
scribed by McLarin in this manner: 
"No. 1 is the shoulder, where the 
wool is long and fine. It grows the 
closest and is most even. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



11 



"No. 2 is rather stronger, but oth- 
erwise equally good. The best and 
soundest wool grows on these parts. 

"No. 3, on the neck, is shorter than 
No. 1, but even finer; where sheep 
are likely to have gray wool it is sure 
to be found here, and also on No. 4, 
which, with No. 5, grows wool of in- 
ferior staple and faulty character. 
No. 6, which covers the loin and back, 
is coarser and shorter, while on 

"No. 7 the wool is long, strong and 
hangs in long staples. On crossbred 



proached; it is known as 'brokes.' 
"No. 11 is also short and fine, while 
"No. 12, the front of the throat, is 

short and worn with rubbing. Kemps 

or dead hairs are mostly found in No. 

12 and No. 8, although in the latter 

they are much longer and stronger 

than in the former. 

"No. 13 is the head, on which the 

wool is very short indeed, rough and 

coarse like the legs. 

"No. 14 is still worse and of little 

value." 




Figure 2. Sectional View of "A Cone Duster" or "Willow." 



sheep this part becomes very coarse, 
and is much the same as 

"No. 8, which is the coarsest part 
of the wool, and is known as bruch, 
or britch, and even when very strong, 
as 'cowtail.' When like this it al- 
most resembles horse hair, although 
it is more brittle and not so smooth 
and bright. 

"No. 9 is also strong and much the 
same as No. 7. 

"No. 10 is short, dirty and increases 
in fineness as the front legs are ap- 



It will be readily seen from the va- 
riety of wool to be found in a fleece 
that none but 

SKILLED WORKMEN 
can sort wools with accuracy. With 
the skill acquired by long practice, the 
eye and hand of the sorter follow the 
divisions according to the number of 
qualities required. At times it may 
be necessary to make six to eight 
sorts, while at other times two sorts 
are all that are required, with the 
britch thrown to one side. The type 



12 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



of goods to be manufactured will de- 
termine to a great extent the close- 
ness to grade required of the sorter. 
In a few instances the fleeces are 
simply skirted, the fabrics requiring 
no further sorting of the stock. 

WOOL SCOURING. 

Wool scouring, as carried on in most 
modern plants, is very different from 
the primitive methods employed by 
our ancestors, and even to-day in 
some remote parts of the world. It 
was the custom to carry the wool to 
the side of a brook, and there re- 
move as much as possible of the dirt 
and grease by manipulating in cold 
water, aided by herbs and barks. 
Later, methods of making soap were 
discovered and the stock was more 
thoroughly cleansed by the use of 
soap and water, but the process was 
still extremely slow and laborious. 
When the old style rinse box, so fa- 
miliar to many of the older genera- 
tion of mill men, was devised, it mark- 
ed a long step in advance in this 
process. The wool was thrown into a 
tub or vat containing the scouring 
liquor, poled for a time to secure 
thorough penetration of the mass, 
then forked out onto a rack to drain. 
Under the rack a suitable shelf was 
placed to provide for the return of 
the scouring liquor to the tub. After 
draining for a time, a portion of the 
wool was thrown into the rinse box 
and a stream of water turned on 
which more or less thoroughly washed 
the impurities of various kinds from 
the stock. 

When clean, the wool was taken 
from the box, allowed to drain for a 
time and then spread thinly on a 
rack to dry. These methods have 
been practically superseded in all 
mills of any size by the 

MECHANICAL WOOL WASHER, 
which is not only a great saver of 
time and labor, but also cleanses the 
wool thoroughly and leaves it in much 
better condition for subsequent op- 
erations. In the majority of instances 
it is advisable to dust the wool be- 
fore scruring, removing in this way as 
much as possible of the mechanically 
adhering dirt and refuse, making a 



considerable saving in the quantity of 
detergents necessary to complete the 
cleansing of the fibre. There are sev- 
eral types of dusters in use for this 
purpose, one of the most commonly 
used being that known as a "cone 
duster" or ''willow." A sectional view 
of a duster of this type is shown in 
Figure 2. 

The cylinder is cone shaped and 
consists of four lags, supported by 
suitable spiders on a main shaft, and 
is usually about 48 inches in diam- 
eter at the large end, tapering to 26 
inches at the other. The lags A and 
A' are 

PITTED WITH IRON TEETH, 

projecting 3 to 4 inches which mesh 
with stationary teeth set in the 
frame of the machine. The lighter 
particles of straw, chaff and dust are 
withdrawn by the exhaust fan B and 
discharged through a pipe outside the 
mill. Below the cylinder is a screen 
C through which the heavier im- 
purities such as sand and dirt fall. 
A screen is also placed at the fan 
openings to prevent the wool from 
being drawn through with the light 
dirt. 

In action the stock is placed on a 
slat apron which delivers it to a pair 
of cockspur feed rolls, which hold it 
momentarily while it is opened and 
beaten by the turn of the cylinder re- 
volving at the rate of 400 turns per 
minute. The bottom of the duster 
should be as nearly air-tight as pos- 
sible, so that there may be no up- 
ward draught of air, caused by the 
suction of the fan, to prevent the fall- 
ing of the dirt and refuse through the 
screen. The screen is usually made 
in at least 

TWO SECTIONS, 

so that it may readily be removed for 
cleaning. The action of the revolv- 
ing cylinder carries the wool toward 
the large end where there is an open- 
ing through which it is discharged. In 
arranging a plant for dusting, scour- 
ing and drying, if the room is not 
long enough to permit of the machines 
being placed tandem, it is possible to 
so arrange them that handling of the 
stock will be reduced to a minimum. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



13 



In order to accomplish this the vari- 
ous machines may be located as in 
Figure 3. The wool is fed to the 
duster A by hand and discharged onto 
an apron running at right angles 
which delivers the wool to the feed 
apron of the three-bowl washer. From 
the delivery end of the third bowl it 
passes to an inclined apron E, which 
delivers it to the feed apron F of the 
dryer G. The dry stock from the op- 
posite end of the dryer falls to an 
apron H, which travels toward the 
blower of the pneumatic conveyor I, 
which transfers the dry wool direct 
to the bins in another room. An in- 
stallation of this sort will give a max- 
imum production with a minimum of 
labor. Tanks for boiling the soap 
should be arranged where they would 
be easy of access and not occupy 
space that could be used more advan- 
tageously for other purposes. 

In scouring wools the detergents to 
be used should be selected not alone 
with a view to removing the dirt and 
grease from the wool, but also with 
the object of leaving the fibre in the 
best possible condition for further 
manufacture. For scouring wool 
there is nothing better than a pure, 
well-made potash soap, the so-called 

FIG OR CROWN SOAP 

While many scourers use soda soaps, 
their use is not advisable on fine 
wools, as the action of a harsh alkali 
has a very injurious effect on the 
wool fibre. The tendency is to de- 
stroy the fine serrations or imbrica- 
tions of the fibre, which detracts ma- 
terially from its working qualities. 
The use of soda also has a tendency 
to give the wool a yellow tinge, if it 
is allowed to lie for some time before 
it is used. Before using any scour- 
ing materials they should be tested 
for purity and strength, not alone to 
be sure that they contain no impuri- 
ties that have no value as detergents, 
but also to make sure they contain 
nothing actually harmful to the wool 
fibre. Some of the 

MOST COMMON ADULTERANTS 

are china clay, salt and silicate of 
soda or resin. A few simple tests 
should be familiar to everyone. Ex- 
cess of moisture, a very common 



method of loading soap, is easily de- 
tected by carefully weighing a sample 
of soap and then cutting it into thin 
shavings, drying until it ceases to lose 
weight and weighing again. The dif- 
ference in weight is the amount of 
moisture it contains. If one ounce of 
the soap is dissolved in water, placed 
in a test tube and a quarter of an 
ounce of dilute sulphuric acid is add- 
ed, the soap will be decomposed. The 
grease and resin, if any, will float on 
the top, and the earthy, heavy im- 
purities settle to the bottom. By 
heating a portion of soap in strong 
alcohol, the soap will be dissolved, 
leaving the insoluble impurities in 
their original form. As it is a matter 
of common knowledge that caustic 
alkali of sufficient strength will en- 
tirely 

DISSOLVE THE WOOL FIBRE, 

it should hardly be necessary to em- 
phasize the fact that its presence in 
soaps for wool scouring should be 
carefully guarded against. Its pres- 
ence is readily determined by an ex- 
tremely simple test. A drop of phe- 
nolphthalein placed on the soap will 
immediately give a pink color if it 
contains free caustic alkali. 

In addition to pure detergents, it is 
absolutely essential that there be an 
adequate supply of pure soft water. 
If hard water is used for scouring 
wools it is well-nigh impossible to ob- 
tain satisfactory results. The most 
common forms of impurities are the 
various iron and lime compounds. 
The result of using such water will 
be to decompose the soap, and the 
grease in it will unite with the acid 
of the lime salt forming a lime soap, 
which is insoluble in water. This 
lime soap, in the form of a sticky, 
pasty mass, will be deposited on the 
wool in the scouring liauor, and is re- 
moved with extreme difficulty. If the 
wool is not thoroughly cleansed from 
it at this time, succeeding operations 
will be attended with considerable 
trouble. This will be particularly no- 
ticeable in the dyeing and finishing 
departments. 

THE IDEAL METHOD 

of wool scouring is that which thor- 
oughly cleanses the fibre, without in 



14 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



the least detracting from its color, 
strength, luster or elasticity. These 
results are impossible of attainment 
without the best of materials, machin- 
ery and care in operation. The form- 
ula for the scouring liquor will .vary 
with the class and condition of wool 
to be scoured, and cannot be laid 
down as an ironclad rule to be used 
in all cases. 

In many mills it is customary to 
make the soaps used, and excellent 
results may be obtained by so doing. 
The formula here given will make 
a very satisfactory soap for wool 
scouring. 

Dissolve 400 pounds of caustic pot- 
ash in 100 gallons of water. Boil un- 
til it is thoroughly dissolved, then 
add water to make up 400 gallons 
giving a solution of a pound of potash 
to a gallon of water. Let the solution 



will injure the wool fibre; in fact, at 
a temperature of 230 degrees Fahren- 
heit the wool will be decomposed 
With these facts in mind, the neces- 
sity for skill and intelligence in 
scouring wool will be readily under- 
stood. The strength of the scouring 
liquor to be employed should be de- 
termined largely by the 

GRADE OF THE WOOL, 

rather than by its apparent grease 
content, and must be left to the judg- 
ment of the scourer. In drying, the 
wool should not be subjected to the 
action of extreme heat, as it has a 
tendency to detract from the working 
qualities of the stock and the handle 
of the finished fabrics. When time 
and space will permit of so doing, 
better results will be obtained by dry- 
ing the wool without the aid of arti- 




=m 



Figure 3. Location of Machines. 



cool to about 65 degrees Fahrenheit, 
when it should test about 14 
degrees Twaddell. Run the lye 
into barrels and add a gallon 
of red oil to each four gallons 
of the solution, stirring occasionally 
until the ingredients are combined, 
forming a jellylike soap. To prepare 
the scouring liquor, place in a suit- 
able tank 125 pounds of soap, 200 
pounds of pearl ash, and boil in 250 
gallons of water, until the mixture is 
completely dissolved. In using a 16- 
foot bowl machine for very greasy 
wools 12 pails of this mixture should 
be placed in the first bowl, 10 in the 
second and clear water in the third. 
The temperature of the liquor should 
never be over 125 degrees Fahrenheit 
and preferably lower, as excessive heat 



ficial heat. This is readily accom- 
plished by providing a suitable screen, 
supported by racks and enclosed be- 
low so as to be practically air-tight. 
A powerful fan is connected with the 
space underneath the screen and 
forces a current of air through the 
stock. Wool dried in this manner is 
more lofty, and retains to a greater 
degree its life and elasticity. 

CARBONIZING. 

Should the wool contain an exces- 
sive amount of burrs and other vege- 
table matter which may not readily 
be removed, the scoured wool may be 
carbonized and the impurities re- 
moved in this way. There are vari- 
ous methods of carbonizing, one of the 
most common being the wet or acid 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



15 



system. In carbonizing by this sys- 
tem a lead-lined tank is provided 
containing a bath, usually of dilute 
sulphuric acid of a strength of four to 
six degrees. In this the wool is im- 
mersed by means of a wooden cage 
into which it is packed, not too 
tightly, as every portion must be sub- 
jected to treatment by the acid. Aft- 
er a suitable time has elapsed, de- 
pending on the quantity of vegetable 



matter in the wool, the cage is raised 
to drain, the wool extracted and sub- 
jected to about 180 degrees of heat, 
which renders the vegetable matter 
capable of being crushed into dust and 
easily removed by the carbonizing 
duster. Wools which have been sub- 
jected to this treatment must be neu- 
tralized by means of an alkali bath, 
unless they are to be acid dyed. 



Wool Mixing and Carding 



To insure good results in carding 
and spinning it is necessary that the 
preparation of the stock in the pre- 
vious processes be thoroughly per- 
formed. In a former article we have 
taken up the sorting and scouring of 
the wool and at this time will follow 
the course of the stock in its prog- 
ress through the regular routine of 
oiling, picking, carding and spinning, 
leaving the dyeing to be treated in 
an article particularly devoted to that 
branch of the industry. 

To card well, the stock must be as 
free from vegetable matter as pos- 
sible, and unless this is removed by 
the carbonizing process, the stock 
should be run through the bur pick- 
er, which will remove a large propor- 
tion of the burs, shive, seeds, etc., be- 
fore the stock is oiled and mixed. A 
common type of bur picker is shown 
in the illustration, reference to which 
will show the means of separating the 
burs from the fibre. The stock is fed 
to the feed apron, a, by the ordinary 
type of self feed, and conveyed in a 
continuous flat web to the cockspur 
feed rolls, A, which hold the stock 
while it is engaged by the cylinder B 
This cylinder 

SERVES A DOUBLE PURPOSE, 

that of opening the wool and also 
carrying it to the bur cylinders d and 
e, which are covered with toothed 
steel rings that allow the wool to 
be drawn into the spaces between the 



rings, but hold the burs on the sur- 
face, where they are engaged by the 
bur guards P, G, and knocked out by 
the rapidly revolving blades. The 
wool is cleared from the bur cylinder 
by the brush H, and carried into the 
gauze room by the current of air 
generated by the brush- Under the 
cylinder is a screen, C, permitting the 
heavier particles of dirt and refuse 
to fall into the enclosed space under 
the machine, while the lighter par- 
ticles are drawn through a screen at 
the back by the fan, and discharged 
outside of the mill through a suitable 
pipe. The burs are thrown into a box, 
J, on top of the feed apron. 

It may be thought strange that 
after spending so much time and trou- 
ble to remove the natural grease from 
the wool, oil should be put on the 
fibre before proceeding with its man- 
ufacture into yarn, but there is an 
extremely simple explanation for this 
operation. In the article on textile 
fibres it was stated that one of the 
most important features of the wool 
fibre is the scaly form of the outer 
surface,, and it was also stated that 
on these scales or imbrications de- 
pends, to a great extent, the 

VALUE AND PELTING 

properties of the stock. Should the 
wool be carded while dry, these ser- 
rations will be injured by the friction 
of the fibres with each other, and by 
contact with the card clothing. The 



16 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



fibres will be broken, causing a much 
larger percentage of waste. When 
lubricated with an emulsion of oil and 
water, the imbrications are filled with 
the lubricant and slide by one 
another easily, allowing the locks of 
wool to be straightened out and dis- 
entangled without injury or diffi- 
culty. It is impossible to restore to 
its original condition wool that has 
been damaged by harsh treatment in 
the scouring or drying process, but 
the use of good oil in liberal quanti- 
ties will assist materially in the card- 
ing and spinning. The oil is usually 



tr in some types as it emerges. The 
method of application is of no particu- 
lar importance, the essential feature 
being hat it shall be applied even- 
ly to all parts of the batch, or 
uneven work in subsequent processes 
will be the result. Another very 
important item, if mixtures either of 
colors or stocks are to be made, is 
to see that the batch is so laid down 
that a homogeneous blend will re- 
sult. This may be best accomplished 
by placing alternate layers of the va- 
rious colors in proportion to the quan- 
tity of each and in feeding to the 




Atlas Bur Picker — a, Feed Apron; A, Feed Rolls; B, Main Cylinder; C, 
Screen; d, e, Bur Cylinders; F, G, Bu r Guards; H, Brush; J, Bur Box. 



applied in the form of an emulsion, 
obtained by mixing oil and water and 
saponified by an addition of a mild 
alkali. The kind and quantity of oil 
to be used varies with the stock, a 
harsh, crisp wool requiring more oil 
than a fine, soft stock. The usual 
quantity of oil for a medium grade of 
stock is four quarts per hundred 
pounds. The stock to be oiled is 
placed in thin layers on the floor of 
the picker house, and the emulsion 
applied with a sprinkler can. This 
method is probably the most com- 
monly used, although in up-to-date 
plants, it is not unusual to find a 

MECHANICAL OILER 
which applies the emulsion just as 
the stock enters the mixing picker, 



mixing picker, using care to take the 
stock from top to bottom of the pile. 
In this manner each armful fed to the 
picker will contain its proportion of 
every color used. If the mixture con- 
tains several colors or stocks, it would 
be well to give it at least three runs 
through the picker. We illustrate a 
modern type of mixing picker, which 
will give the reader an excellent idea 
of the machine and its 

METHOD OF OPERATION. 
The stock is fed to the traveling apron, 
which conveys it to the feed rolls. 
These are fitted with pin or cockspur 
teeth which hold the stock momen- 
tarily, while it is engaged by the 
teeth of the main cylinder which re- 
volves at a speed of from 700 to 1,000 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



1? 



revolutions per minute. The stock is 
discharged through an opening direct- 
ly opposite the feed rolls into a gauze 
room, or to a blower which conveys 
it to the desired receptacle. 

Oiling and mixing, which, of them- 
selves, are apparently simple opera- 
tions, requiring no special care or at- 
tention, are, in reality, a very impor- 



have the picker discharge direct to 
a blower connected to a pneumatic 
system, which deposits the stock in a 
suitable bin convenient to the self 
feed of the card. If this is not per- 
mitted from lack of space, or other 
good reason, the batch may be sheeted 
up and taken to the card room as 
needed. At the present time there 




Mixing Picker — g, Screen Under Cylinder," h, Feed Apron; j, Feed Rolls; 
l f Cylinder; 12, Cylinder Teeth; o, Cover. 



tant part of cloth manufacture. Un- 
less the stock is well handled in the 
picker room, no amount of time and 
labor which may be expended later 
will remedy the evils resulting from 
this inattention. It is a common say- 
ing among woolen superintendents 
that stock which leaves the picker 
room in first- class condition is well 
on the way to perfect cloth, while 
stock poorly treated in the picker 
room will give trouble in every sub- 
sequent process. 

From the picker house, the stock 
may be conveyed to the card room by 
any means at hand. The system in- 
volving the least labor, perhaps, is to 



are few mills, if any, which are not 
fitted with self feeds in the card room. 
This is not only a 

LABOR-SAVING DEVICE, 

but insures much evener results than 
it was possible to obtain by the old 
method of feeding by hand. The illus- 
tration shows a modern first 
breaker card with self feed at- 
tached, as commonly used in woolen 
mills. The essential features of the 
feeding are a receptacle for the stock, 
a spike apron to convey the stock to 
the weighing mechanism, suitable 
means to dump the required weight 
of stock on the feed apron, and means 



18 



Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 



by which it is possible to prevent a 
further supply to the scale pan when 
the required amount has been re- 
ceived. The operation of the ma- 
chine is not difficult to comprehend, 
and is marvelously accurate in its re- 
sults. 

It is built with a large hopper or 
feed box, in the back of which is a 
spiked apron for conveying the stock 
from the hopper to the scale pan. Near 
the top of the apron, the stock comes 
in contact with an oscillating comb, 
which removes the surplus wool, 
leaving the balance distributed even- 
ly over the apron. On the opposite 
side of the apron, a rapidly moving, 



the mixing begun in the picking proc- 
ess, and the arrangement of the 
mass of wool into suitable form to be 
spun into yarn. In olden times these 
operations were all performed by 
hand, but the inventive genius of 
man has perfected machinery that 
now enables us to obtain much better 
results, with practically no handling 
of the stock from start to finish. Mod- 
ern carding involves the use of three 
machines, with the necessary acces- 
sories in the way of feeding mechan- 
isms and doffers. The two 

PRINCIPAL FEATURES 

of carding are: The carding itselt 




First Breaker Card and Self Feed. 



short, stripper apron sweeps the wool 
from the spike apron into the scale 
pan- When the desired weight of wool 
is deposited in the scale, the sinking 
of the pan raises an arm which en- 
gages with suitable levers and stops 
both the spike and stripper aprons. 
By means of a lever operated by a 
gear driven from the feed apron, the 
scale pan is opened and the wool de- 
posited on the feed apron of the card. 
The empty pan then is lifted by the 
counterpoise disengaging the stop 
mechanism, and the operations are 
repeated. With the placing of the 
stock on the feed apron of the first 
breaker card, the process of carding 
really begins. The objects of carding 
are threefold: the opening out of the 
fibres of the wool, the completion of 



which consists of opening and card- 
ing the wool by means of revolving 
cylinders covered with card clothing 
filled with wire teeth, the carding ac- 
tion taking place when the teeth of 
two opposing cylinders work point 
against point; the stripping of the 
carded web from the cylinder by the 
points of the clothing on one cylin- 
der, working against the backs of the 
teeth on the other. On an ordinary 
set of 48x48 cards there are usual- 
ly six workers on the first and 
second breakers, and five on the fin- 
isher. The illustration shows the 
method of action of a worker F, and 
stripper G, in connection with the 
main cylinder E, of the card, giving a 
clear idea of both the carding and 
stripping. At the rear of the last 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



19 



worker on each card is a roll covered 
with longer wire, which has neither 
a carding nor stripping action, but 
acts 

MORE IN THE NATURE 
of a brush. The surface speed is 
slightly greater than that of the cylin- 
der, and the clothing raises the stock 
to the points of the teeth on the cylin- 
der from which it is rapidly removed 
by the doffer. An oscillating comb at 
the back of the doffer removes the 



it differs somewhat because of the 
change in the method of feeding. The 
illustration shows the back of the first 
breaker and the Apperly feed ap- 
plied to the second breaker and is suf- 
ficiently clear to require no detailed 
explanation From the second break- 
er, the stock is transferred to the fin- 
isher by a similar feed and is sub- 
jected to still further carding. The 
chief point of difference between the 
finisher and the two breaker cards is 




Side View of Cylinder, Worker and Stripper — f, Worker; g, Stripper; g1, 
Web Taken by Worker; g2, Web Removed by Stripper; e, Cylinder; 
Arrows Indicate Direction of Movement. 



stock in a continuous web, which is 
drawn off at the side through a tube 
by suitable rollers, and usually con- 
veyed to the second breaker in rope 
form by the Apperly feed, thus elimi- 
nating the use of the old style creel. 
The second breaker card is not essen- 
tially different from the first breaker, 
usually the clothing is finer, and it 
may be set somewhat closer, the ac- 
tion being virtually the same, con- 
tinuing the carding and completing the 
mixing of the stock. In appearance 



at the delivery end. Instead of deliv- 
ering the stock in rope form from a 
single doffer, the finisher is provided 
with two ring doffers. The rolls are 
not entirely covered with card cloth- 
ing but have alternate rings of cloth- 
ing as shown in the cut. The doffers 
are so arranged that the portion of 
the cylinder not stripped by the upper 
rings comes in contact with the cloth- 
ing of the bottom doffer, and the web 
is divided into ribbons which pass 
through the condenser, where they 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 




WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



21 



are subjected to a reciprocating mo- 
tion, and rubbed into threads termed 
roving, which are wound on spools 
ready for the spinning room. 

The importance of care and accu- 
racy in setting the various parts 
of the card cannot be too strongly 



strongly impressed upon the opera- 
tives, as in case these are allowed to 
enter the cards with the stock, the 
wire becomes bruised and bent, and is 
rendered totally incapable of perform- 
ing the functions for which it was in- 
tended. The care and setting of the 








== ' 







J 2 t/2 

Ring Doffers on Finisher Card — j1, j2, Empty Spaces; j3, Waste End Slings. 



emphasized, as inattention to these various parts of the cards cannot be 
details will result in serious injury to taken up in the brief description of 
the stock, as well as irreparable dam- the process here given and belong in 
age to the card clothing itself. The a more technical treatise of the sub- 
necessity of removing burs and lumps ject than space at this time will al- 
of foreign matter cannot be too low. 



22 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Woolen Spinning 



There are probably very few of the 
present generation who have seen 
wool spun on the old fashioned wheel, 
so commonly used in our grandmoth- 
er's day. It is only a few genera- 
tions ago that the women of the 
household were accustomed to spin 
the various fibres into yarn, and 
weave, on a primitive type of 
hand loom, not only the cloth for the 
garments of the family, but the linen 
for the table and bedding. It is less 
than one hundred and fifty years ago 
that the first machine for spinning 
more than one thread at a time was 
invented by James Hargreaves. This 
was a wonderful improvement over 
the process then in vogue, and the 
perfection of the jack by Samuel 
Crompton in 1779 apparently left 
nothing to be desired. It would be 
extremely interesting to listen to the 
comments these pioneers in the in- 
dustry would make, could they be 
translated to a modern spinning room, 
with its 

SELF-ACTING MULES, 
of some 560 spindles each, operating 
at a speed of three draws per min- 
ute. The production of one 
of these mules, 1,680 yards of 
yarn per minute, would certain- 
ly appear to them as but little 
short of marvelous. For the greater 
part of a century, the hand jack was 
the type of machine used in the 
woolen mills. This machine, while 
a vast improvement over former 
methods, was somewhat slow and 
laborious. The minds of many 
skilled mechanics were engaged on 
the problem of increasing the ef- 
ficiency of the jack by modifications 
and improvements that should 
make it automatic in its action. The 
use of the hand jack required the 
spinner to wind the yarn, and 
form the bobbins by hand, as indi- 
cated by the name of the machine, 
while in the modern type of mule, as 
built by both foreign and domestic 
manufacturers, the action is automatic 



throughout. All that is required of 
the operative, practically, is to keep 
it supplied with roving, remove the 
full bobbins, place a set of empty 
bobbins on the spindles and start the 
mule. The spinning process consists 
of 

THREE OPERATIONS, 

drawing out the roving, inserting the 
required amount of twist and winding 
the thread on the bobbin. In a pre- 
vious article the carding of wool was 
described, ending with the winding of 
the roving on jack spools, in which 
condition it is taken to the spinning 
room, ready for the mules. 

The method of operation may be 
briefly described as follows: A por- 
tion of roving is unwound from the 
spool, drawn and twisted to the de- 
sired size and wound on bobbins or 
tubes, for ease of handling in subse- 
quent processes. The mule has as its 
principal features, three distinct 
parts, each of which are intimately 
connected with the successful per- 
formance of the work. These are the 
carriage, the head stock and the 
mechanism for supplying the roving. 

The carriage travels in and out au- 
tomatically and carries near its outer 
edge the spindles which are driven 
from a sectional cylinder, extending 
the length of the carriage, by cotton 
bands. Its motion is controlled by 
the headstock, from which every 
movement of each part of the machine 
is governed by means of suitable 
gears and cams. The line drawing 
gives a very clear idea of the various 
parts and their relative positions. The 
spool of roving, A, is placed on the 
drum, Al, the ends passed through the 
guide, A2, which keeps them in the 
center of the bosses on the drawing off 
rolls, A4 and A5. The outer end of the 
roving is then fastened to the bobbin, 
C8, on the spindle, C7. The lower pair 
of delivery rolls are driven by a train 
of gears from the roving drum, Al, 
which in turn is driven from the head- 
stock. The spindle is supported by 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



means of a "stepboard" at the lower 
end and a "collarboard" at the top 
of the carriage, and has a slight in- 
clination toward the delivery rolls. 
About midway between the step and 
collarboards is the whorl, C8, a small 
grooved pulley, around which the 
driving band passes. In former years 
each spindle was driven by a single 
band, but the approved method at 
present is to drive 

ONE OR MORE SECTIONS 
by a band passing around a spindle 
and the cylinder alternately. The 



motion, usually 72 inches, and remains 
there until sufficient twist has been 
inserted. When this has been accom- 
plished, the fallers assume the proper 
position, the carriage is drawn in, 
winding the yarn on the bobbins at 
the same time. To one not familiar 
with the machine it would seem that 
the roving would be immediately brok- 
en by the rotation of the spindles. The 
fact that the point of the spindle is 
slightly below the level of the delivery 
rolls, together with its inclination per- 
mits the yarn to slip off over the top 




End View of Mule. — a, Spool of Roving; a1, Roving Drum; a2, Roving Guide; 
a3, Sectional Top Roll; a4, a5, Delivery Rolls; a6, Thread; b1, b4, Fall- 
ers; c7, Spindle; c8, Bobbin; c4, Cylinder. 



arms, Bl and B4, termed "fallers" carry 
wires which serve to keep the yarn 
taut, and guide it while winding on 
the bobbin. The operation will be 
more readily comprehended if the de- 
scription follows the action from the 
beginning of a draw. When in this 
position the tops of the spindles are 
slightly below and about an inch from 
the delivery rolls. The delivery of 
roving from the rolls, the rotation of 
the spindles, and the drawing out of 
the carriage are started at the same 
instant. While the roving is being 
delivered, the speed of the carriage is 
about the same as the surface speed 
of the delivery rolls. When the rolls 
stop, the carriage continues to draw 
the yarn, till it reaches its limit of 



as the spindle revolves, and each rev- 
olution of the spindle puts one turn 
of twist in the yarn. To watch the 
operation of a mule while spinning is 
extremely interesting, and would al- 
most convince one that it was pos- 
sessed of an intelligence of its own. 
The motion of the carriage in either 
direction, the delivery of a determined 
length of roving, acceleration of spin- 
dle speed during the drawing and 
twisting, the easing off to allow for 
the contraction of the yarn due to 
the twist and the perfect formation of 
the bobbin from bottom to top seem 
well nigh impossible for inanimate 
matter to accomplish. 

When the bobbins are full, they 
must be removed and the spindles re- 



24 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

filled with empty ones. This is ac- operation is completed, the fallers 
complished without disturbing the locked down, and a few turns of yarn 




yarn. The mule is stopped just as it taken about the spindle below the bob- 
is about to back off after the twisting bin, which fastens it securely, then 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



25 



the full bobbins may be removed. The 
objects to be obtained by spinning are 
not, as many suppose, simply the 
twisting of the yarn and placing it 
on bobbins. In addition to these very 
important features, the drawing of 
the yarn plays an essential part in 
the production of a sound, perfect 
thread. In common with nearly every 
process in textile manufacturing, the 
success of the spinning depends to a 
marked degree on the thoroughness 
with which the previous operations 
have been performed. While it is un- 
deniably true that an expert spinner 
can do much toward rectifying mis- 
takes that have been made in the card 
room, it is, nevertheless, impossible 
for him to attain the highest possible 
success, if the materials with which 
he has to deal are not in the best pos 
sible condition when he receives th"m 

It is utterly impossible for the 
most expert spinner to make a per- 
fect, even thread from uneven, 
twitty roving. By skillful adjustment 
of the various parts of the mule, he 
may be able to overcome in part 
some of the defects due to lack of care 
in the carding. 

IMPORTANCE OF DRAWING. 

It is a matter of some surprise that 
so many spinners have so slight a real- 
ization of the extremely important 
part that the drawing has in the pro- 
duction of perfect yarn. In the de- 
scription of woolen carding it will be 
remembered that the fancy was the 
last roll to act on the stock before it 
left the finisher card to go to the ring 
doffers and condensers. The state- 
ment was made that the fancy simply 
acts as a brush, raising the stock to 
the points of the teeth of the cylinder 
clothing so that it may be the more 
easily removed by the doffers. This 
brushing action of the fancy, together 
with the slower surface speed of the 
doffers, has a marked tendency to dis- 
arrange the . parallelization of the 
fibres effected by the carding. The 

DRAWING OPERATION 
during the process of spinning cor- 
rects this to a certain extent, and 
draws the fibres into a more nearly 
parallel condition again. Very fre- 



quently it will be found that com- 
plaints of tender yarn in the weave 
room can be entirely eliminated by a 
change in the drafting on the mules. 
It is manifestly impossible to bring 
out thp greatest strength one is able to 
secure with the stock used unless the 
fibres are drawn to such an extent as 
to insure their interlacing with as 
many others over as great a space as 
is possible. Drawing the yarn 
while twisting also tends to even up 
the inequalities of the roving some- 
what, the twist setting in the finer 
spots as the yarn is being drawn, 
leaving the thicker untwisted portions 
to be drawn out and reduced to more 
nearly the correct size. 

The production per spindle is de- 
pendent to a very great extent upon 
the size of the yarn and the quality 
of the stock. The usual equipment in 
modern mills is to allow a 360-spindle 
mule for a set of 48-inch cards. The 
number of mule spindles required to 
put the production of a set of cards 
into yarn, however, is a variable 
quantity, depending on several fea- 
tures. The class of stock, the size of 
the yarn, and the amount of draft re- 
quired, all have a very material effect 
on this question. The latter is an 
item that does not receive the atten- 
tion that it demands at all times. On 
good stock it is customary to make 
the roving double the weight of the 
yarn to be spun, that is, to produce 
a four run yarn the roving would be 
made * , o-run on the cards. If in the 
judgment Of the spinner, the stock 
will permit, it would be well to make 
the roving still heavier, making a ma- 
terial increase in the card room pro- 
duction without in any way affecting 
the quality or running of the yarn on 
the mules. On coarse yarns the man- 
ufacture of which presumably entails 
the use of a cheaper and inferior 
stock, it may be necessary to make 
the roving relatively finer, that is, % 
run or possibly 1 run to produce a 1% 
run yarn. It is impossible to formu- 
late a rule that will give 'the best re- 
sults at all times, and details of this 
kind must be left for the carder and 
spinner to deal with as the exigencies 
of the ca^e demand. 



26 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Worsted Yarn Manufacture 



The first operation in the manufac- 
ture of worsted yarns, except in the 
case of a few varieties of extremely 
long wools, is somewhat similar to the 
first process used for woolen yarn 
making. Instead of the set of cards, 
consisting of three separate machines, 
the worsted card is a single machine 
with two or three cylinders mounted 
on the same frame, with workers and 
strippers similar in appearance and 
functions to those on the woolen card 
described in a former article. The 
object of carding is to comb the wool 
and lay the fibres as straight and as 
nearly parallel as possible, making a 
sliver in which every fibre retains its 
length. A very important item is that 
the 

WEIGHT OF THE SLIVER 

be maintained as uniform as possible 
from day to day, otherwise it will be 
impossible for the comber to make 
the comb slivers of uniform weight. 
A marked difference between wool- 
en and worsted carding is in the 
method of removing the carded wool 
from the machine. In the worsted card 
the stock is taken from the doffer in 
the form of a flat web by a vibratory 
comb, and delivered through a tube 
to the balling head, without a change 
in its direction of motion through the 
card. This tends to preserve the par- 
allelization of the fibres affected by 
the carding operation. The balls of 
"slubbing" are then placed on the 
preparing gill boxes where a further 
combing takes place. The essential 
features of the gill box are the front 
and back rolls and a set of fallers as 
shown in x igure 1. The action of the 
machine is governed entirely by the 

RELATIVE SPEEDS 
of these three parts. The motion of 
the rolls is rotary, that of the fallers 
horizontal, all three moving the wool 
forward in the same direction. The 
combing action of the gill box is due 
to the fact that back rolls, fallers and 
front rolls all move at different 
speeds. Reference to Fig. 1 will make 



the explanation of the opera- 
tion more clear. We will assume that 
the back rolls A are delivering a 
sliver to the fallers B, which are steel 
bars containing two rows of pins. 
While the back rolls are delivering 
one inch the fallers may travel one 
and a half inches, and in the same 
time the front rolls C deliver six 



Fig. 1. End Vie\ of Gill Box -A 
Back Rolls; B, F-.lers; C, Fr 
Rolls. 



inches. The arrow indicates the di- 
rection of motion of the fallers, which 
are carried by a screw. When in the 
position indicated by 1 the faller 
drops to a second screw which car- 
ries it back directly under that mark- 
ed 2, and is raised into position as No. 
2 travels forward. From this gill box 
the slubbing may be taken to the 
back washer to remove the impurities 
from the wool. This is accomplished 
by passing the sliver through two 
bowls, ea>~h of which have a pair of 
squeeze rolls to press out the suds 
after treatment. From the last pair 
of rolls the sliver passes over a se- 
ries of heated cylinders which dry it 
thoroughly before it reaches the gill 
box attached to the front of the back 
washing machine. In many spinning 
mills it is customary to apply oil just 
previous to gilling on the back wash- 
er, while in others this is done during 
the next gilling operation, from which 
the sliver goes to the "punch box," a 
machine that rolls four ends of slider 
into a ball ready for comhirg. 
WORSTED COMBING. 
The type of comb most commonly 
used in our domestic mills is the 
Noble or great circle comb, of which 
Figure 2 is an illustration. This is 
used for combing all classes of wools, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



27 



though the Lister or nip comb is prob- 
ably adapted for extremely long 
stocks. Though the general design 
and principle of the Noble comb have 
not been changed in over 25 years, it 
has been materially improved me- 
chanically. The first and more im- 
portant of these improvements was 
the invention of a greatly accelerated 
dabbing brush, increasing the produc- 
tion about 20 per cent; the second, 
and comparatively recent improve- 



tical drawing- off rolls, which take 
away the sliver of long fibres. The 
success of the machine is due to its 
simplicity, depending on the comb cir- 
cles alone to clear the wool and re- 
move the noil, as the short, curly fi- 
bres are termed. Another point of 
difference from all other combs is that 
the wool in process of combing is car- 
ried in a creel attached to the re- 
volving circle. The punch box meas- 
ures the length of sliver wound into 




Fig. 2. Improved Noble Comb. 



ment, was the application of ball 
bearings to the carriage, which has 
reduced the power consumption to a 
marked degree. 

The principal features of the comb 
are the large horizontal circle with its 
five rows of vertical pins, two small 
horizontal circles with rows of upright 
pins, the outer row of which touch 
the inner row of pins on the large cir- 
cle, the two dabbing brushes, which 
drive the wool down into the 

PINS OF THE TWO CIRCLES 

at this point of contact, and the ver- 



the four end balls, as it is essential 
that each ball should contain the 
same length. The creel holds 18 
balls, a total of 72 slivers being comb- 
ed at the same time, which insures 
very thorough mixing. The perimeter 
speed of the large and small circles 
is the same, so that at the point of 
contact they are practically stationary 
in regard to each other, which per- 
mits of the wool being pushed down 
into both circles simultaneously. The 
combing results from the fact that as 
the circles rotate they draw apart, so 
that the wool, which was forced into 



28 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



the pins of the circles when they were forced into the pins by the dab- 
close together, is combed as the dis- bing brush. As in fine circles 
tance between the circles increases. there is less than 1-100 of an inch 




Fig. 3. Double Can Gil! Box. 



The efficiency of the comb depends between the pins it is obvious 
on the separation of the circles, as all that no nibs or vegetable mat- 
the short wool, nibs and shive, are ter can pass through these fine 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



29 



spaces, so that the fringe of wool 
hanging from the circles is free from 
all matter of this nature. As the cir- 
cles travel the fringes of long wool 
are engaged by the drawing-off rolls 
and removed in the form of a continu- 
ous sliver of long fibres, leaving the 
short wool, burs and nibs within the 
rows of pins. This mixture, termed 
noil, is removed by a set of station- 
ary knives, and falls into a funnel 
which conducts it under the comb. 
The combed sliver, called top, is car- 
ried to the back of the machine and 
coiled into a can. To prepare the 
sliver for the drawing and spinning 
requires the use of two gill boxes. 
The objects to be obtained are four- 
fold: 1. The blending of the various 
lengths of fibres. 2. To further par- 
allelize them. 3. The application of 
water in order to properly condition 
the top so as to insure every yard of 
sliver weighing the same. 4. Winding 
the sliver into balls for economy of 
space and to facilitate handling in the 
drawing room. 

In order to obtain a sliver that shall 
be as nearly perfect as possible, it is 
essential that the various lengths of 
fibre should be mixed thoroughly 
through every portion. The sliver 
from the Noble comb is made up of 
four small slivers from the four sets 
of drawing-off rolls. The wool from the 
large circle is longer than that drawn 
from the small one, necessitating the 
gilling operation to equalize the 
length of the fibres in all parts of the 
silver. (See Figure 3.) The chief 
point of difference in the 
two finishing gill boxes is that 
the first delivers into a can, while the 
second winds the finished top into a 
ball. It must not be understood that 
a single sliver is delivered to a gill 
box for treatment. At the first box, 
28 cans of comber sliver are placed in 
position, and the ends fed to the back 
rolls. Assuming that the comber sliver 
weighs an ounce per 10 yards, and the 
box has a draft of five, 

THE RESULTING SLIVER 
will weigh 5.6 ounces per 10 yards. 
Four of these slivers may be fed to 
the second box, which, with a draft 
of five, will give a finished sliver 



weighing practically 4% ounces per 10 
yards. In order to make yarn of uni- 
form weight, it is essential that the 
tops go to the drawing room of uni- 
form weight and with a standard 
amount of oil and water, or as it is 
usually termed "condition." The sliver 
is now in the condition known as fin- 
ished tops and ready for the next 
series of processes termed drawing. 
WORSTED DRAWING. 
Many of our smaller worsted spin- 
ning mills buy their raw material in 
the form of finished tops, confining 
their operations to the drawing and 
spinning. The process of drawing con- 
tinues the operation of parallelizing 
the fibres and reduces the slivers to 
roving suitable for the spinning 
frames. This is accomplished on a se- 
ries of machines technically termed a 
set of drawing. There are three sys- 
tems in common use: open drawing, 
cone drawing and French drawing. 
The first two are variations of the 
Bradford system, the first of which 
will be described here. The principle 
of drawing is simple in the extreme, 
consisting of reducing a large sliver, 
or number of slivers, down to a rov- 
ing small enough to be spun without 
excessive draft, at the same time to 
so even the sliver that the spun thread 
will be of a uniform size. This can be 
done in no other way than by a pair of 
back rolls revolving slowly, 
drawing the sliver in, and feed- 
ing it in turn to a pair of front 
rolls revolving rapidly and draw- 
ing the wool out. By a repetition of 
this process and a sufficient number 
of doublings, a roving of the correct 
weight and condition is produced. 

A set of drawings for yarns to be 
spun to 40s or thereabouts consists 
of about eight operations and requires 
the following machines: 



First operation 2 double head can grill 

boxes. 
Second operation 2 
Third operation 1 
Fourth operation 1 
Fifth operation 1 
Sixth operation 2 

finishers. 

Seventh operation 3 thirty-spindle reducers. 
Eighth operation 9 thirty-spindle rovers. 

The doublings and reductions for a 
1,282 dram top (40 yard weighing) to 



two-spindle gill boxes, 
four-spindle draw box. 
six-spindle weigh box. 
eight-spindle draw box. 
twenty-four spindle 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 




(O 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



31 



produce a 4 dram roving would be as 
follows: Five slivers at the first gill 
box, with a draft of seven, will give a 
sliver weighing 916 drams. Five of 
these at the two spindle gill box, with 
a draft of seven, will give a sliver 
weighing 654 drams. Five of these in 
the four spindle draw box, with a draft 
of seven, will give a sliver weighing 
467 drams. Four of these, with a 
draft of seven in the six spindle weigh 
box, will result in a sliver weighing 
267 drams. In the next operation, 
three slivers are put up at the back 
of the eight spindle draw box. With 
a draft of seven the sliver produced 
will weigh 114% drams. Three of 
these slivers in the finisher, with a 
draft of seven, will give a sliver 
weighing but 49 drams. Two 49 dram 
slivers at the reducer will produce a 
14 dram sliver with a draft of seven. 
For the final operation in the drawing, 
two of these slivers are placed on the 
rovers, and with a draft of seven, pro- 
duce the desired roving, weighing 4 
drams. The rovings from this frame 
are taken to the spinning room ready 
for the final processes of yarn making. 

WORSTED SPINNING. 

Of the four methods of worsted 
spinning in common use, the cap 
frame is, perhaps, the most used and 
is the one here shown in 
Figure 4. The spinning proc- 
ess, as stated in the article 
on woolen yarn making, consists of 
three operations, drafting, twisting 
and winding the yarn on bobbins. 
These are all accomplished on the 
same machine, and on the cap frame 
are continuous. 

The cap frame is particularly well 
adapted for the production of fine 
counts of yarns, and is capable of a 
much greater production than other 
types of spinning frames, as the spin- 
dle speed may be much greater than 
would be possible on the other sys- 
tems. The disadvantage of this meth- 
od of spinning is that the 
high spindle speed (6,000 ' to 
8,000 evolutions per minute) with 
nothing to protect the yarn in its 
rapid travel around the cap, creates 
a considerable friction with the air, 
producing a somewhat rougher thread 



which raises the fibres on the yarn, 
than a flyer or ring frame. The enor- 




$—4 



V 

Fig. 5. A, Cap; B, Bobbin; W f 
Whorl; L, Lifter Plate; S, Spindle; 
R, Spindle Rail. 

mously greater production, however, 
overcomes this objection in a great 



32 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



measure, as also does the fact that the 
defect is not nearly as noticeable on 
fine yarns. The method of operation 
will be readily understood by refer- 
ring to Figures 5 and 6. The 
line drawing, Figure 5, shows a 
bobbin partially filled. A is the cap, 
fixed at the top to the spindle. B is 
the bobbin on a tube or sleeve inte- 
gral with the whirl W, which is rais- 
ed and lowered by the lifter plate L. 
R is the spindle rail, into which the 
spindle S is firmly screwed. The draft- 
ing is accomplished by means of back 
and front rollers similar to the meth- 
od employed in the drawing. An end 
elevation of the roving and drawing 



bobbing. The back rolls are metal, the 
carriers usually of wood; the bottom 
front roll is metal and the top roll 
metal with a covering of leather. The 
wearing of this leather in spots is a 
frequent source of imperfection in 
the yarns, and requires the recover- 
ing of the rolls. Tbe top rolls in the 
drawing and spinning rooms should 
be 

FREQUENTLY INSPECTED 

by those in charge of ihe departments, 
and defective rolls replaced with 
those in perfect condition, so that the 
labor of removing defects in yarn and 
cloth may be minimized. Yarns to be 




Eue Board 

Fig. 6. Sectional View of Tops of Spinning Frame — 2 luide; 3, 3A, Back 
Rolls; 4, Carrier Rolls; 5, 5A, Front Rolls. 



rolls is here given. The spools of rov- 
ing are placed on the upper part of 
the frame on suitable spindles, the 
roving passing through the guide 2 
between the back rolls 3, 3 A. and the 
carrier rolls 4 to the front rolls 5 and 
5A, which revolve faster than the back 
rolls, thus reducing the roving, winch 
is then twisted and wound on the 



used for warp are usually two piled, 
that is two threads from the spinning 
frame are placed on the twisting ma. 
chine and given a varied number of 
turns per inch, depending on' the size 
of the yarn and the use to which it 
is to be put. Filling yarns are very 
frequently used directly from the 
spinning bobbin. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



33 



Vigoureux Printing 



Though comparatively new in the 
United States, the vigoureux system 
of printing tops is hy no means a new 
process, having been invented by M. 
Vigoureux of Rheims. The process 
consists of printing the slivers with 





Printed Sliver. 



bands of color by means of fluted 
rollers, which are interchangeable, 
producing various percentages of col- 
ored and white sliver as desired. The 
cut shows a portion of the sliver as 
it comes from a printing gill which 
was fitted with double spiral fluted 



rolls, forming a cross hatch pattern. 
It is not customary to use more 
than one color, as it has been proven 
extremely unsatisfactory to make 
fancy mixtures in this way. If it is 
desired to have several colors in the 
mix it has been found 

LESS EXPENSIVE 
to print the various colors on separate 
slivers and blend them in the gill 
boxes. For some years it was consid- 
ered that yarns made by the vig- 
oureux system were not suitable for 
men's wear purposes, but of late the 
process has been so improved that the 
results will permit of their being used 
in practically any fabric. The great 
superiority of this method of produc- 
ing mixture yarns over that of mix- 
ing slivers of different colors in thu 
gilling is the greater evenness of the 
resulting thread. The blotchy appear- 
ance of the goods, so often seen in or- 
dinary mixtures, is entirely eliminat- 
ed, for instead of every fibre being en- 
tirely of one color each has its pro- 
portionate share of color, and the 
blend is much more homogeneous 
than can possibly be obtained by any 
other method. The installation here 
described is capable of producing 1,- 
500 pounds daily, and consists of two 
printing gills, steam box, back washer 
and an intersecting gill box for unfelt- 
ing. The 

FIRST OPERATION 

in vigoureux dyeing consists of passing 
the sliver through the gill box and 
printing machine. The tops are plac- 
ed in a creel for a doubling of 16 ends 
per head. The gill box has a single 
head of wide pitch, the pitch being 
890 millimeters and the set-over 500 
millimeters. The gill box is of the or- 
dinary type of construction. The draft 
of the gill box is from 4 to 6, the 
slivers leaving the front rolls in a 
wide sheet, which runs under the 
printing rollers. 

The coloring matter is conveyed to 
the coloring roll by a rubber roll, par- 



34 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



tially immersed in the dyebath, which 
is contained in a wooden trough. The 
coloring roll is of rubber, covered 
with felt, The machines are fitted to 
operate with either one or two print- 
ing rollers on the same coloring roller. 
The printing rollers have 

SPIRAL FLUTES, 
one roller having the spiral to the 
right, the other to the left, so that, 
with the rollers working in conjunc- 
tion, the wool is marked in a diamond 
shape. The mark may be made by 



necessary to have an assortment of 
rolls with different flutings. By the 
use of two pairs of rolls, one coarse 
and one fine, it is possible to obtain 
a wide variation of shades. They may 
be used singly or in several combina- 
tions, the two fine rollers together, a 
single roll, either coarse or fine, or 
one of each kind together. The print- 
ed sheet of wool on leaving the roll- 
ers is conducted over a series of 

REVOLVING CAGES, 
in order to allow the dye to soak in 




Printing Gill Box, Skene & Devallee. 



close or open mesh, according to the 
pitch of the flutes of the printing roll- 
ers. . . 

The shade of the resulting mixture 
is governed entirely by the closeness 
of mesh of the printed pattern. To 
obtain various depths of shade it is 



and dry somewhat before being de- 
posited on the sheet. The use of 
linen sheets for receiving the wool 
from the printing machine is recom- 
mended, as they are best adapted for 
the steaming operation which follows. 
The printed tops, tied up in the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



35 



linen sheets, are placed in the steam 
box as tightly as possible, in order 
that the steam may not escape freely 
but penetrate the stock thoroughly. 
The use of a wooden steam box is ad- 
vised, rather than one constructed of 
metal for obvious reasons. High pres- 
sure in u metal receptacle is likely to do 
serious injury to the stock. The length 
of time necessary for the steaming 
operation varies with the dyes used 
and the quality of the wool. In some 
cases, after an hour's steaming at low 
pressure, the stock is removed, cool- 
ed off and again subjected to the 
steaming. When cooled off the stock 
is placed on a scray under the creel 
of the back washer. This is preferably 
of special construction, having five 
bowls, instead of the two found in the 
ordinary machine. The doublings are 



intersecting gill box. This is of the 
type known as the 

INTERSECTING GILL BOX 

for heavy doubling and heavy draft. 
The doublings here are 10 per head, 
with a draft of 10. The peculiar fea- 
ture of this machine is that it has, in- 
stead of a single set of fallers with 
the pins pointing up, an extra set for 
a part of the distance, with the pins 
pointing down and intersecting with 
the teeth in the bottom set. The 
drawing of the sliver in a gill box of 
this type completely removes any 
tendency toward felting, resulting 
from the preceding processes. 

In printing tops it is necessary to 
use a gum of some sort in the dye- 
bath, and one that is readily soluble 
in warm water. Those in most com- 
mon use are British gum and traga- 




Sectional View of Printing Gill. 



eight to twelve, according to stock 
under treatment. After passing 
through the five bowls, for the re - 
moval of surplus dye, the sliver is 
dried by passing over a series of steam- 
heated cylinders, and goes direct to the 
double head gill box of two spools 
each, -which is built integral with the 
back washer. The final operation, or, 
as it might be considered, the first in 
the drawing, is the passage of the 
washed and dried slivers through the 



canth, a domestic product, D. & M. 
(Danker & Marston) is also used with 
very satisfactory results. The dyes 
used for this system are of many 
kinds, the dyer having a wide range 
of drugs to choose from. 

Some of the colors used with ex- 
cellent results are: Mordant yellow 
G, GS, R and 3D, alizarine red S pow- 
der, the various palatine chrome 
browns and scarlets, the oxamine col- 
ors and the anthracene blues. A few 



36 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



formulas that have worked very suc- 
cessfully in mill practice are as fol- 
lows: 

8% Alizarine Black S. R. powder. 
19% Water. 
50% British gum. 

5% Acetic acid 9 degrees Tw. 

3% Oxalic acid dissolved in 

5% Water. 
10% Acetate of chrome, 32 degrees Tw. 

100% 

5% Palatine chrome blue R, dissolved in 

3% Glycerine, 

25%% Hot water and 

50% British gum thickening; 
When cool, add 

3% Oxalate of ammonia, 

%% Chlorate of soda, 

12% Acetate of chrome S. 32 degrees Tw. 

1% Turpentine oil. 



5% Palatine chrome brown R, dissolve i 

in 
3% Glycerine, 
25V 2 % Hot water and 
50% British gum thickening: 
When cool, add 
3% Oxalate of ammonia, 
V2 % Chlorate of soda, 
12% Acetate of chrome S. 32 degrees Tw. 
1% Turpentine oil. 



100% 

5% 
3% 

25 Ms< 
50% 



100% 



3% 

12% 
1% 

100% 



Palatine chrome claret dissolved in 

Glycerine, 
Hot water and 

British gum thickening; 
When cool, add 

Oxalate of ammonia, 
Chlorate of soda, 

Acetate of chrome S. 32 degrees Tw. 

Turpentine oil. 



Angles of Twills 



The ordinary method of construct- 
ing serpentine twills is to combine a 
series of twills whose inclination from 
the horizontal gives the desired ef- 
fect. The method of forming such 
twills is very simple and consists of 



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ll.l DIC 111 lb .aa.Jlill BGBGDGB 
■■■■ SB HO DBBBBbBBU&BBBBDBDaaDa 
HIIIIIIDIDIullDailB ilillDl BUG 
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p. G«GBG*BBBBGSGGGGfl«BaDBBBBBDBBBBB 
- I II BB HEilll lllll H1IH1 HiH 

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■ ■LGSaiat«iiGlBB£itG^GiaGa«IKttGil 
BBBGGBBLGGBBBE GOB . GBDBGGGBBBBBGB 
BBBaaBBBBGBBBBOBBBBUBL.BaDDBBB»Ba 

BBBBaDBBDD a: ■■DiaaiaaD*a. atnia 
Serpentine Twill Made by Transpo- 
sition. 

using the regular twill as a base, then 
taking every other perpendicular line 
in the draft, every third line, and 
proceeding in this manner, then re- 
versing the procedure until the orig- 
inal twill is again produced as in the 
example shown. To form a reclining 
twill proceed in the same manner 
with the 

HORIZONTAL LINES. 
A similar effect may be produced by 



a change of texture in the warp as 
exemplified in the boucle pattern so 
popular some time ago. A cut of the 
fabric is here shown and will convey 
to the mind of the reader the effect 
produced in a clearer manner than a 
written description. The warp used 
for the fabric illustrated was dressed 
20 ends of four run and 20 ends of 
2 run alternately, the four run reeded 
4 per dent and the 2 run 2 per dent, 
giving a fabric of even weight 
throughout, but with a vastly different 
texture in alternate stripes. In the 
stripe made by the coarse warp yarn 
the twill is practically 45 degrees but 
in the fine stripe becomes a 63-degree 
twill with the same chain and the 
identical filling texture, the change in 
angle of the twill being caused entire- 
ly by the difference in warp texture. 
It is supposed by many that the ordi- 
nary type of twill chain will produce 
a 45-degree twill on the woven goods 
under all circumstances, as exempli- 
fied by the following query, but the 
facts in the case are as stated in the 
answer thereto. 

Ed. American "Wool & Cotton Reporter: 
We are enclosing a small sample of a 
four- harness twill that we figure is wov- 
en two up and two down. You will no- 
tice, however, that the twill is about 
T7 e'egrse.'?, while a regular four-har- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



37 



ness twill is 45 degrees. How in your 
opinion is this 27-degree twill obtained? 
Do you think it is done in finishing by 
the tentering machine? Yours truly, 

No. 2491. 

There is a very great difference 
between the angle at which a weave 
runs in a design and the angle at 



the weave upon ordinary design paper 
or upon cloth which contains exactly 
the same number of threads and also 
of picks per inch. Whenever the con- 
struction varies from the same num- 
ber of threads and picks per inch 
THE ANGLE OF THE TWILL 
in the woven cloth will vary from that 




Serpentine Twill Made by Variation of Warp Texture. 



which any certain weave runs when 
it is woven into cloth. This subject 
has never been treated at all clearly 
in any of the technical books upon the 
subject and should be explained care- 



originally noted. That is, it will no 
longer be at the angle which the 
weave would indicate when it is on 
the design paper. The idea expressed 
in this inquiry that it is done in fin- 

M 




fully in order to make results entirely 
clear. Usually oesign books give cer- 
tain weaves or changes of weaves 
which are known as certain degree 
twills, and this is entirely correct for 



ishing by the tentering machine is in- 
correct, and while finishing does affect 
the angle in the cloth tc a slight 
amount, it has nothing whatever to 
do with the radical changes in angle 



38 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



noted in the cloth. 

There is used in this cloth a four- 
harness twill, which is usually de- 
scribed as a 45-degree twill, and it is 
a 45-degree twill upon a weave stand- 
ard, or even in cloth when the same 
number of threads and picks per inch 
are noted. We give herewith a small 
sketch which will explain clearly the 
reason why the angle of the twill in 
the cloth is not the angle in the de- 
sign. This cloth contains about 44 
picks and about 122 threads per inch. 
These figures may vary slightly in 
other portions of the cloth, but the fig- 
ures given are approximately correct. 
It will thus be noted that the ratio be- 
tween the warp and the filling is 2.78. 
That is, in the cloth for a certain 
space there will be 2.78 times as many 
threads as there are picks. 

BY EXAMINING THE SKETCH 
the result obtained should be clear. In 
the small square, which we have made 



off on a horizontal line the ratio which 
the warp is to the filling and then by 
drawing a line through the point ob- 
tained the angle of the twill can be 
closely approximated. You will note 
that it is not 27 degrees, but rather 
that it is about 20 degrees 

IN THE SAMPLE SUBMITTED. 
If tue number of picks per inch be in- 
creased more than there are threads 
per inch, the angle of the twill will be- 
come more nearly horizontal, and this 
angle can be obtained in a similar 
manner to what we have used in the 
illustration. The various degrees are 
marked to make the situation clear. 
Some manufacturers designate the 
angle of twills similar to what we 
have used on the illustration submit- 
ted, while others use a^i opposite 
method. That is, they call the hori- 
zontal line degrees and the vertical 
line 90 degrees, thus making a twill 
such as you have submitted about a 



27- Degree Twill. 



about two inches each way, this weave 
would make the 45-degree twill that 
we have drawn if there were 122 
threads and also 122 picks per inch, 
or in fact if any number of threads 
and a like number of picks were used 
in the cloth. Now consider what hap- 
pens in the cloth submitted. For ev- 
ery 122 warp threads it will require 
2.78 times as much space for the same 
number of picks. In other words the 
45-degree weave does not remain any 
longer at an angle of 45 degrees, but 
is forced much nearer a vertical po- 
sition. The angle of any weave in a 
fabric can be obtained very easily by 
the method which we illustrate. Mark 



70-degree twill instead of a 20-degree 
twill. 

Do not confuse the degree of a 
weave and the degree of a twill or 
weave after it is woven. 

THE CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 

always has an influence on the weave, 
and every change in construction will 
produce a different result. A few ex- 
periments upon the loom will show 
this more clearly. First place upon 
the loom a pick gear which will give 
40 picks, then one which will give 80 
picks, then another which will give 
120 picks, all with the same degree 
of weave or twill used. The de- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



39 



gree of the woven twills will all vary- 
according to the degree of weave used 



and the construction of the cloth be- 
ing made. 



Textile Cost Finding. 



Cloth is sold to the consumer at 
prices that seldom represent actual 
intrinsic value, the prices being deter- 
mined in a measure according to the 
popularity of the fabric. Neverthe- 
less, the actual cost to make any par- 
ticular fabric is the basis on which 
the manufacturer is paid for the work 
performed and the stock used in its 
construction. 

The value of labor in mak- 
ing a cloth is pretty well stand- 
ardized, and the value of the stock is 
closely reported in the market, so 
that with this information, in combi- 
nation with a reasonable allowance as 
profit on investment, the value of a 
given fabric may be easily ascertain- 
ed without severe technical training. 
It should be clearly understood that 
when speaking of cloth the author 
does not include knit goods, only the 
production of the loom. 

All cloth has a warp and a filling. 
The warp threads are those which run 
lengthwise in the cloth, and filling 
threads are those crossing the warp 
threads from side to side of the cloth. 
A perfectly balanced cloth contains 
the same number of threads of warp 
and filling to the square inch, of yarns 
of the same thickness, and on exam- 
ining such a cloth, it will be found 
that each warp and filling thread 
passes over and under each other al- 
ternately. 

As each thread occupies a definite 
space, the number of threads to the 
inch will be according to the thick- 
ness of the yarn, and as yarns are 
spun to a positive thickness, which is 
designated by a number, this number 
indicating the actual length of yarn 
per pound, the cloth will contain 
threads according to the number or 
thickness of the yarn. 

The yarns that go into the warp or 
filling are spun from stock capable of 



being spun the fineness required, and 
the manufacturer judiciously selects 
his stock with not alone the fineness 
of yarns to be spun in his mind, but 
also the intrinsic value of available 
and suitable stock. 

STOCK USED 

in making cloth is divided into animal 
and vegetable fibres of various kinds, 
classes and grades. Value of stock is 
determined within its class according 
to its spinning possibilities, the finer 
it will spin the more valuable it is. 
The relative value of classes of stock 
is otherwise determined; for instance, 
a pound of fine cotton can be bought 
around 20 cents, whereas a corre- 
sponding fine grade of wool could not 
be obtained at less than 80 cents, and 
yet the above cotton can spin 84,000 
yards per pound, while the above fine 
grade of wool could not spin more 
than 33,600 yards per pound. In speak- 
ing of standards of value, it is, there- 
fore, necessary to keep in mind that 
cloth made out of cotton and cloth 
made out of wool are calculated from 
different basic values. 

The features to be considered in es- 
timating the value of a fabric are: 
The stock used, the cost of converting 
the stock into yarn, the weaving into 
cloth, the finish which the cloth re- 
ceives, the expense of putting it on 
the market and manufacturing profits. 

The first factor, stock used, varies 
as to first cost by the world's laws of 
supply and demand, and the only way 
to properly handle stock is by watch- 
ing the variation in values of stock in 
the markets. The cost of converting 
stock into yarn is pretty well stand- 
ardized, so much so that the market 
variation for yarns is produced pri- 
marily by the variation of the price 
of stock used. 

The cost of weaving is determined 



40 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



by various factors: First, the speed 
of the loom the fabric may be woven 
at; second, the number of looms one 
weaver can run, and third, the av- 
erage wages for which weavers may 
be employed. These different fea- 
tures are now well standardized, and 
rules of value established. Finishing 
includes dyeing, and it also is well 
standardized in its cost for material 
and labor in the process. 

Recognizing these standards estab- 
lished, as evidenced by the uniform- 
ity of prices that yarns, for instance, 
can be bought anywhere, we have 
now to consider the value of a fabric 
in its construction. 

The written language of tex- 
tile design is expressed on 
what is called point paper. This 
paper is lined off in small squares, the 
number of squares used representing 
the number of threads in a pattern 
of the design. All warp threads which 
are woven on the face of the cloth 
are expressed by an X, and the filling 





Medium 15 to 16 Ounce Crash. 



threads which are woven on the face 
of the cloth by an empty square. 
(These rules are not absolute, but the 
exceptions will be mentioned later.) 

By referring to the accompanying 
illustration of a fabric taken from our 
Woolen Glossary, an understanding 
may be obtained of the written lan- 
guage of textile design. 



— 5r- • x 


. x U 


^ x. 


X • J 


V A • x 


■ X I 


W X- 


X • / 


M / 1 


J * 



Design. 

SECOND GRADE OF CRASH. 
Made of medium grade of wool, 15 to 16 

ounce finished. 
1,080 ends, 18 picks'; reed 8 — 2 — 67% inches 

between the list; 6/4 finished. 

Warp: 1,080 ends, 1% run 7 20/100 oz. 

Filling: 18 picks, 1% run 8 34/100 oa. 

15 55/100 oz. 
10% shrinkage 1 55/100 oz. 

Equal loom weight 17.1 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 

Med. wool: 40c. lb. or 2%c. oz. 
Material: 17.1 oz. + 10% shrink- 
age = 18.8 oz. 

18.8 oz. @ 2%c = 47c. 

Manufacturing: 18 picks = 20.3c. 

Mill cost 67.3c. 

Woven on 4-harness straight draw. 

The second sample of cloth in our 
Woolen and Worsted Glossary is a 
well-balanced cloth of twenty threads 
of warp and twenty threads of filling 
in one inch of the finished fabric. 
The designer's point paper shows, 
reading from the lower left hand cor- 
ner, that the first warp thread is on 
the face once and on the back once, 
and so on in this order, while the sec- 
ond thread is on back once and then 
on face once, reversing the order of 
weave. This makes both warp and 
filling threads fit together firmly in 
the cloth, but if the yarn was hot of 
sufficient thickness in either warp or 
filling, the cloth would not feel firm. 

By referring to 

THE LAYOUT, 

it will be found that the designer has 
described the kind of stock -wanted 
(medium grade of wool) and the num- 
ber of ends or threads (1,080) in the 
full width of warp and the number of 
picks or filling threads, 18, oc- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



41 



cupying one inch of cloth. To under- 
stand the calculations it is necessary 
to bear in mind what we have already 
stated — that yarns are known by their 
number, and that this number implies 
a given number of yards to the pound. 
Further on in the above layout it 
will be noted in speaking of warp it 
specifies the yarn number as 1% runs. 
This term means 1,600 yards of yarn 
to the pound, and when designated 
as 1% runs, means 1% times 1,600 
yards, or 2,400 yards divided by 16 
ounces gives 150 yards per ounce. 
Therefore, 1,080 yards divided by 150 
warp yarn to the yard would weigh 
7.2 ounces. In figuring for filling, the 
full width of 67% inches has to be con- 
sidered plus two inches for selvage 
or listing. Filling threads are usually 
designated picks and 67% plus 2 
equals 69%, multiplied by 18 picks will 
give the number of threads per yard 
(69% times 18 equals 12,510). This 
divided by 1% runs or 150 yards per 
ounce equals 8.34 ounces, which, 
added to the weight of warp, 7.2 
ounces, equals 15.56 ounces. In weav- 
ing, the bend of each thread as it is 
woven in has to be considered, and 
experience has proven that with this 
cloth 10 per cent for take-up binder 
is allowed. Therefore, the weight is 
further increased to 17.1 ounces. 

COST FIGURES. 

In figuring cost, the price of stock 
used per pound should be reduced to 
the price per ounce to correspond with 
the yarn calculations in ounces. Me- 
dium wool is figured as being worth 
40 cents per pound, divided by 16 
equals 2.5 cents per ounce. At this 
point the percentage of loss in weight 
of stock all through the manufacturing 
of the fabric has to be figured, and in 
this fabric, it is set down at 10 per 
cent; therefore, it takes 18.8 ounces 
to make a yard of cloth weighing 15 
to 16 ounces, and will cost 47 cents. 

In figuring the cost of a woolen 
fabric in Bennett's Glossary, the man- 
ufacturing charges are based on the 
following table. This table was origi- 
nated by a skilled and successful 
manufacturer. It is not only based 
on theoretical conditions, but is the 



outcome of a close scrutiny of all 
processes. Before adopted, it was 
subject to some severe tests, and 
since its adoption it has always prov- 
en a close and safe basis for estimat- 
ing manufacturing charges. 

Table of manufacturing costs for 
fancy cassimeres from raw stock, or 
fancy worsteds from grey yarn: 

Picks. Cost per yd. || Picks. I Cost per yd. 

16 $ .196 44 $ .308 

18 .203 46 .316 

20 .21 48 .324 

22 .218 50 .333 

24 .226 52 .341 

26 .234 54 .349 

28 .242 56 .358 

30 .25 58 .366 

32 .259 60 .375 

34 .267 62 .383 

36 .275 64 .391 

38 .283 66 .40 

40 . .291 68 .408 

42 .30 70 .416 

Cost per yard of piece-dyed wor- 
steds and plain 2 -loom work: 



Picks. 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 



Cost per 


yd. 


Picks. I 


$ .20 




46 


.206 




48 


.212 




50 


.218 




52 


.224 




54 


.229 




56 


.234 




58 


.239 




60 



Cost per yd. 
$ .244 
.25 
.255 
.259 
.263 
.267 
.271 
.275 



Cost of spinning worsted yarns from 



tops: 



Single. Two-ply. 



1/15 

1/16 

1/20 

1/24- 

1/28 

1/32 

1/36 



1/19 
1/23 
1/27 
1/31 
1/35 
1/40 



.09 
.10 
.11 
.12 
.13 
.14 
.17 



$ .13 

.14 
.15 
.16 
.18 
.20 
.22% 



A table is found in the Glossary to 
determine labor cost. Eighteen picks 
will equal 20.3 cents labor cost, added 
to the cost of stock, which is 47 cents, 
equals 67.3 cents mill cost per yard. 

We provide another illustration 
from the Glossary of Woolen and 
Worsted Fabrics by which an 
enlarged understanding of the de- 
signer's methods of recording his de- 
signs may be obtained. In addition 
to the fabric illustrated there are 
three other illustrations. The first is 
called a full draft, and gives a com- 
plete outline of the design in a man- 
ner fully explained above, the crosses 
showing the warp yarns as they ap- 
pear on the face of the cloth. The 
second illustration shows it reduced 
to what is called the chain draft. 



42 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



REDUCTION. 

It will not be amiss at this 
point to explain the method 




Medium-Weight Cassimere, 14^-oz. 

pursued in reduction. In the 
first place, all squares running up- 
ward represent warp, and the cross- 



xx 



XX. 



X ' X 

,< X 



X ■ ,X X 

x -;x ■ 



|X X 

:x ■ 



• • x x • ■ x x 
•XX- ■ x K • 

x x ' ' * X • X 

x. ■ ■ x x • • • 

■ • xx xx 1 

■ X, X « • 'XX 
X X ■ X X ■ • X 

x ■ • • x x • • 

■XX- 'XX' 

••xx- .xx 

X. ■ • X X. • - X 

xx- • x"x • 

■ K < ■ ■ x x • 

• -xx- • xx 
xx xx- • x 

X • • • XX 

• ■ X X : X X ■ 

• xx- • • x x 
xx • ■ X X ■ X 
X • ■ X X • • • 

■ ■ x x • ■ x x 

■ xx- -xx- 



XX- -XX • 
X . • X X • 

xx- • ■ X 

• • x x ■ x x 
x • ■ < x • • 

XX- -xx- 
•xx- -XX 

■ • x x ■ ' X 
X • -XX- ■ 
X X • ■ x x ■ 

•xx- xx 

■ ■ XX ■ ■ X 
X ■ -XX- • 
X, x • • X X ■ 

■XX' XX 

• ■ X x • ■ X 

x ■ -xx- ■ 
xx- • xx • 
- xx ■ -XX 
i -xx- ■ x 

X • XX- • 

x x • ■ x x • 

• Xx- ■ • x 

. • X X X X 



■ x x 

x X 



• X : 
X X 



X X 
■ XX 



X X 
■ X X 



• X X 
XX 



• X X 
x X 



• X X 

X X • 



x X ■ 
■ X X 



• X X 
XX 



■ X X 
XX, • 



/ * / j 2, n- ' <rz * / / * s / f z "> ' v **■' 



Full Draft. 



ings, filling. To reduce a full draft 
the designer begins at the first warp 
thread and gives it Number 1, and 
the following threads, when the ar- 
rangement of squares is the same, 
get the same number. In this case, 



.XX 


■ x ■ x • x • x 


• X 


lit 


• X X • 


X • X • X • X « 


x • 


23 


X • X • 


X • X x • • X • 


x • 


Zl 


x • • x 


• x • • x x ' x 


• X 


z/ 


■ x ■ X 


• X X • X • • K 


• X 


za 


•xx- 


X • • X • X X • 


X • 


'? 


X • X • 


x x ■ x • x • • 


X • 


// 


x • • X 


• • x • x • x x 


• X 


V 


• x • x 


X • x • x • X • 


* X 


s& 


• X x • 


• X • X • K ' X 


x ■ 


;€ 


X • XX 


• x • x • x • X 


• • 


/t 


x • • • 


x • x • x • x • 


X X 


/J 


•XX- 


X • X ' x • X • 


X • 


/& 


• x • x 


• x • X ■ X • X 


• X 


// 


X • x x 


• x • x • x • X 


• • 


JO 


x ■ • • 


X • X • x • X • 


X x 


? 


■x-xx-X'X-x- 


• X 


i 


• X X ■ 


• X • x • x • x 


x • 


? 


X • .x ■ 


X x • X • X • • 


x • 


4, 


x • • X 


■ • x • x . X X 


'■ X 


r 


•XX 


•xx • x ■ X. 


X 


fc 


• XX ■ 


x • • x • X X • 


x • 


J 


X • X • 


x • x x • - x • 


X • 


£ 


x •• . x 


• x • • X X • x 


• X 


/ 


1 / &y m 


<r // <f /<?// '£ w^ 




Chain Draft. 







the second thread is different, as the 
crosses or risers are differently ar- 
ranged, that is, the warp threads are 
appearing at different points from 
those of the first thread. This second 
thread is Number 2. The third thread 
is the same as the first, and is num- 
bered 1. On reaching a thread of a 
different arrangement from those pre- 
ceding, another new number is given, 
all repeats being marked by the num- 
ber of the first thread so arranged. 
THE CHAIN DRAFT. 
When this is completed the repeats 
are all eliminated and this provides a 
chain draft as per third illustration, 
but the above work would not give 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



43 



the desired results unless provisions 
were made to take care of the warp 
threads eliminated. 

By referring to the fourth illustra- 
tion, called the drawing-in draft, it will 
thus be found that the threads thrown 
out have been provided for, and that 
by drawing in repeat threads on the 
same harness each thread will rise 



z z -z 6 i, i -i 
/ / / / / / / 



Drawing-in Draft. 

and fall as per full design. This fea- 
ture adds but little to the expense in 
manufacturing a piece of cloth, and 
but little consideration in costing. 

The above explanation bearing on 
two of our woolen and worsted glos- 
sary fabrics is applicable to all the 
fabrics, as the same rule governs the 
cost in all cases, but in some in- 
stances additional features must be 
filling is added by a method of stitch- 
ing. 

FABRICS. 

There are practically but four dis- 
tinct classes of fabrics, namely: 1. 
Single fabrics in all their modifica- 
tion in interlacing. 

2. Backed and double fabrics in 
which an addition is put on the back 
of the single fabric either by extra 
warp, extra filling; or a complete 
cloth, consisting of both warp and 
considered. 

3. Gauze or open weave in which 
the threads of warp and filling are not 
in close weave together. 

4. Pile fabrics in which loops or 
tufts are pulled up out of the ground 
fabric, producing what is known as 
warp piles or fabrics in which the 
weft to a filling is cut to form a pile, 
as in the case of velveteens. 



Two particulars respecting the 
yarns of which fabrics are built should 
be considered, the length per pound 
of the yarn used and its diameter. 
As we have stated before, the length 
per pound determines a yarn's num- 
ber, and there are three principal 
classes or series of numbers which 
are used to designate respectively 
woolen, worsted and cotton. The 
woolen series is based on 1,600 yards 
of yarn per pound to the number; 
therefore, a pound of one -run yarn 
will measure 1,600 yards, and all 
other runs are proportionate. For in- 
stance, five-run yarn will be five times 
1,600, which equals 8,000 yards 
per pound. Instead of 1,600 y^rds, 560 
yards .is the worsted yardage per 
pound to the Number 1 worsted, and 
840 yards to the Number 1 cotton, and 
all calculations for weight are based 
on these standards. 

Diameters refer to the thickness of 
the yarn, and are determined by the 
threads that will rest side by 
side in one inch, and are ob- 
tained from the square root of 
the yards to the number, with a dis- 
count of 16 per cent for woolen, 14 
per cent for coarse worsteds, 10 per 
cent for fine worsteds and 8 per cent 
for cotton yarns. Recognizing the fac- 
tors that will determine the value of 
the fabric and the established stand- 
ards governing these factors, the con- 
ditions under which a salesman may 
determine the value of a fabric are 
comparatively simple. 

On making an analysis of a given 
fabric to ascertain its value, the first 
step is to take one or more square 
inches of cloth, more, if possible, and 
weigh on grain scales. Place this cloth 
in a high temperature to make it bone 
dry, weigh again and credit the varia- 
tion to the presence of moisture. 
After keeping the cloth in a normal 
temperature long enough to receive 
normal moisture, take this fabric 
apart, one thread at a time, keeping 
the warp threads separate from the 
filling, and carefully count each 
thread, weigh the warp and the fill- 
ing threads separately, making a note 
of the weight and the number of 
threads. 



44 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Assuming that the above cloth is 
one inch square, by multiplying the 
warp threads by the width in inches 
the yardage of warp yarn to a yard 
of cloth will be ascertained. The 
threads in the filling multiplied by the 
width will give the yards of filling 
yarn contained in a yard of cloth. By 
multiplying the width inches with the 
yard inches and the sum of the above 
by grains weight of warp and grains 
weight of filling the aggregate yards 
of warp yarn and of filling yarn con- 
tained in one yard of this cloth will 
be obtained and their weight in 
grains. 

As an illustration, suppose the 
square inch of cloth weighed two 
grains of warp and two grains of filling, 
and that the cloth was 54 inches 
wide, the width multiplied by the 
yard inches, 54 by 36 inches, equals 
1,944 square inches. This sum multi- 
plied by two grains would equal 3,- 
888 grains or 8.88 ounces per yard of 
cloth. And suppose there were 40 
threads of warp per inch of cloth and 
40 threads per inch of filling. The 
width, 54 inches, multiplied by 40 
would give a total of 2,160 threads 
of warp and the equivalent in filling. 
By dividing the 2,160 threads of warp 
by weight in ounces, 8.88, would give 
243, which is the yards per ounce, and 
this multiplied by 16 equals 3,- 
888 yards per pound. Dividing this 
sum by the yarn number of either 
worsted, woolen or cotton denomina- 
tion, the yarn count can be ascertain- 
ed as follows: 3,888 divided by worsted 
count 560, number 6.94; 3,888 divided 
by cotton count, 840, number 4.62; 3,- 
888 divided by woolen run, 1,600 
yards, the size of the yarn in woolen 
runs would be 2.43. 

On the basis of the above, the value 
of labor required to make the cloth 
may be ascertained, but the stock used 
has not been determined. Whether 
woolen, worsted or cotton, the wiry 
feel of cotton is easily distinguished 
from worsted and woolen goods, but 
the two latter classes are only differ- 
ent so far as the process of making 
the wool stock into yarn is concerned 
and the particular suitableness of 
stock wanted. For instance, worsted 



yarns can be made best from wool of 
long fibre, whereas woolen yarns are 
made from short wool. 

DIFFICULTIES IN COST FINDING. 

One of the most intricate problems 
in determining the cost of a woolen 
fabric is the question as to the stock 
used in its production. No system of 
cost finding, however elaborate it may 
be, will be of material assistance in 
this direction. The use of chemical 
tests and the microscope will assist 
somewhat, but even when used by an 
expert will not give 

EXACT RESULTS. 

The only means of arriving at a prac- 
tical working basis is to examine the 
fabric, dissect it carefully, and from the 
appearance of the threads, with knowl- 
edge of the strength required to make 
work that will run well in the mill, the 
competent superintendent will be able 
to duplicate any cloth. The ability to 
do this cannot be gained from text 
books, but is the result of years of 
training in the various mill processes, 
and an intimate study of the various 
textile fibres. Only in this way can 
one hope to acquire the knowledge 
necessary to blend the stocks to the 
best advantage, and produce results 
that shall prove profitable to the mill. 
Estimating the cost of worsted cloth 
is much more simple, as the oppor- 
tunities for manipulation are lacking. 
An examination of the yarns will read- 
ily enable one accustomed to handling 
them to determine the size and grade, 
and the price may be found in the col- 
umns of the American Wool and 
Cotton Reporter each week. The 
method used in determining the cloth 
costs will be readily understood by a 
perusal of the analyses of the various 
worsted fabrics contained in this 
glossary. 

WOOLEN AND WORSTED CLOTHS. 

The shorter and finer a wool is just 
so much easier and better it felts. 
This is an essential feature in finish- 
ing woolen goods, and woolen cloth 
in general is at its best when finished 
with a nap, and worsted with a close 
finish. Putting it in another way, fab- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



45 



rics that do not want to show a weave 
effect in the design are best made by 
the woolen system, but where a clear- 
ly denned weave is desired the design 
should be made of worsted yarns and 
cut close by the finishing shears. 

The line of demarcation between 
woolen and worsted cloths is further 
accentuated in their weight. Woolen 
fabrics are at a disadvantage when 
they are made lighter than 12 ounces 
to a 54-inch width, but when over 16 
ounces they are intrinsically better 
than worsted goods. On the other 
hand, worsted yarns made from wool 
of a proper length of fibre can be used 
in the making of the lightest and fin- 
est fabrics. 

When woolen yarns are spun from 
carded stock the fibres are brought 
together at all angles, and although 
producing a lofty, soft-feeling 
thread, they do not attain 
the strength or finish of a 
worsted thread, whereas the process 
of spinning worsted produces a thread 
made of fibres all laying parallel, the 
short fibres being removed in the 
combing process. The preparing of 
stock, carding, combing, drawing and 
spinning of worsted yarns costs more 
than the process of spinning and card- 
ing of woolen yarns. 
A very 

SIMPLE WAY OF ESTIMATING 

the cost of a fabric, and a fairly accu- 
rate one, is to recognize values in a 
hundred units, 61 of which are credit- 
ed to the value of raw material, 15 to 
weaving cost and 24 to the cost of 
yarn-making processes. If the actual 
cost of either of the above items is 
known, the other costs may then be 
computed on the basis of the known 
quantity. For instance, the wool stock 
used costs 61 cents, and the other 
items in combination will figure 39 
cents, plus 61 cents, which 
equals $1. If the yarn is 
bought at 87 cents per pound, 
the aggregate price would be the 
same. These units of value can be 
obtained by referring to our current 
quotations of the wool and yarn mar- 
ket in the American Wool and Cotton 
Reporter. The weaving costs are sus- 



ceptible to a variation. All plain and 
lone-colored fabrics of simple design 
are woven on two or more looms, and 
the above weaving units of value are 
based on what is called one-loom 
work. The two or more loom work 
would divide the cost, if two-loom 
work, by two; therefore, 15 units 
would then become 7% units, the yarn 
cost remaining 24 units and the stock 
61 units. 

To make the above clear, 
if we will take a 12-ounce fabric 
in which the yarn used is 
2-40 worsted, costing $1.05 per 
pound, the material being 12 ounces 
in weight, or three-quarters of a 
pound, the price for yarns will be 
78.75 cents. This price includes 
the stock and would represent 
85 units, which figure should be used 
on the value they represent. 78.75 
cents divided by 85 equals 9.27 cents 
times 15 units for weaving one-loom 
work equals 13.90 cents, added to 78.75 
cents equals 92.65 cents, but if two- 
loom work, add one-half only of weav- 
ing cost, 6.95 cents, which equals 85.70 
cents, the price of the fabric. Al- 
lowance must always be made for 
wastes in the process, and it must 
also be kept in mind that the manu- 
facturer expects a profit of about 10 
per cent, which, if added, equals 94.27 
cents. 

As we have ' indicated above, the 
value of fabrics varies according to 
the value of stock. In the manufac- 
ture of woolen goods as distinct from 
worsted goods, there is greater lati- 
tude in the selection of stock for the 
former than the latter. This is be- 
cause the woolen process of making 
yarn permits the blending of all 
kinds of stock and also the use of 
substitutes, whereas the worsted sys- 
tem requires the use of wool approx- 
imately uniform in length of fibre; in 
fact, the worsted yarn-making process 
involves the combing out of all short 
fibres from the stock before it be- 
comes yarn. These short fibres are 
called noils and are used extensively 
by woolen mills in making woolen 
cloth. 

Generally speaking, wools come un- 
der three classifications: Low, fine 



46 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



and medium. The comparative value 
of these wools, taking the market quo- 
tations of to-day, are: Low, 40 cents; 
medium, 50 cents, and fine 60 cents. 
These prices are for wools on what is 
called the scoured basis, that is, the 
wool is cleansed of all undesirable 
matter. The above prices are for 
both long and short fibre wools, which 
are known to the trade as combing and 
clothing wools. Prices obtained in 
the wool market generally favor comb- 
ed wools, but the above ratio of the 
three values will generally run about 
the same. 

Not only does the manufacturer of 
woolens avail himself of the noils 
from the worsted mills, but he also 
uses mill wastes, straight cotton and 
cotton wastes, shoddy made from 
tailors' clips and shoddy made from 
rags. Considerable skill is needed in 
manipulating the various kinds of 
wool stock and substitutes, the grades 
of substitutes varying as many times 
as straight wool. 

CHEAP CLOTHING. 

In one section of England the abil- 
ity to make cloth from low rag stock 
exceeds all others the world over. 
Most of the fabrics woven are made 
with cotton warps and are sold at 
very low prices. A similar fabric 
is made in this country- and is called 
satin ette. This may be considered 
the lowest grade of men's wear cloth- 
ing. In weaving, the warp yarns are 
woven in under a strain. On the con- 
trary, filling when woven in only re- 
quires to carry its own weight, and 
for these reasons, the lowest class 
of fabrics mentioned above contain 
a warp of strong cotton yarn filled 
with heavy filling made of stock of 
the shortest fibres. 

NAPPED GOODS. 

One important quality required in 
stock for woolen goods is its felting 
properties. This quality enables the 
manufacturer after weaving to shrink 
his goods in the finishing process and 
to raise a heavy nap, the cloth still 
retaining a firm. feel. This finish is 
peculiar to overcoating fabric and 
cannot be obtained to advantage by 



the use of worsted yarns, and nap- 
ped overcoatings are invariably made 
out of woolen yarns. This brings us 
to the consideration of substitutes 
and adulteration, as a great many of 
these overcoating fabrics contain a 
blending of wool and substitutes. So 
far as these fabrics are concerned, 
cotton or its wastes are not suitable, 
as cotton has no felting properties. 
Sometimes cotton yarn is used in the 
"warp to bind the stock of both warp 
and filling of a low, heavy quality, but 
as the amount of cotton used under 
such conditions is relatively small, it 
neither helps nor impedes the felting 
required. 

ADULTERATION. 

In making fabrics to cost less than 
what can be made from the cheapest 
clothing wool, the manufacturer re- 
sorts to substitutes. These substi- 
tutes are traded on the market the 
same as wool, and quotations as to 
current prices are found in the Ameri- 
can Wool and Cotton Reporter in each 
issue under a general classification, 
"Rags, Shoddies, Wastes & Extracts," 
and other various departments. Under 
the section, "New Clips," will be found 
a list of different grades of tailors' 
clips. This stock is all new and of 
various grades. 

Old stock comprises a classification 
of rags picked up all over the country 
by dealers. Flannels, knit goods, 
serge, merino, skirted cloth, delaines 
and carpet, all these grades of both 
clips and old stock are broken up by 
cards, pickers or garnetts, and the best 
of this stock, which is called shoddy, 
is used by the mills in manufacturing 
cloth and the balance in the making 
of mattresses. The wastes of the 
mills are also on the market. Woolen 
wastes are under two general classifi- 
cations, hard and soft. The former 
has to be broken up before be- 
ing utilized in the making of 
yarn. Soft wastes are used just as 
found on the market, and cotton 
wastes are taken both by the woolen 
and cotton mills. By comparing val- 
ues, it may readily be seen how stock 
going into a fabric may be cheapened. 

As wool substitutes are used in 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



47 



their classification of fine, medium and 
low, their uses are also limited by 
their various shades and colors. 
When manufacturing goods which run 
to light shades, light stock only can 
be used, and some of the latter is 
difficult to use under any circum- 
stances. Goods running to dark shades, 
on the other hand, can be made with 
a blend of wool substitutes of practi- 
cally any shade. This indicates that 
dark wool cloths are more likely to 
contain shoddy than light cloth, and 
to a certain extent, explains why 
heavy clothing runs to dark shades, 
as the manufacturer can make his 
yarn with a greater percentage of 
shoddy, as it is necessarily thicker 
for heavy-weight goods. When making 
light shades and light-weight goods, 
manufacturers very generally resort 
to cotton which will not only spin to a 
fine thread but will color to the light- 
est shades. 

NOT DETRIMENTAL TO UTILITY. 

A reasonable amount of cotton used 
in the stock of a woolen fabric is not 
detrimental to its utility, nor is there 
any serious objection to the presence 
of shoddy in woolen cloth. To speak 
of shoddy, because it is made out of 
old rags, as being unsanitary is ab- 
surd, as shoddy in its preparation goes 
through a strong sulphuric acid bath 
and is dried in an oven of 220 degrees 
Fahrenheit, which will absolutely de- 



stroy all germs. The only real objec- 
tion to the presence of cotton or shod- 
dy in a fabric is the difficulty of de- 
termining the presence and their pos- 
sible excessive use, and although the 
presence of either cotton or shoddy 
is not detrimental to the fabric, wool 
which they are there to replace is of 
better value. 

BOILING OUT. 

To determine the presence and pro- 
portion of cotton in a woolen fabric, 
take two or three square inches of 
cloth, dry it bone dry and weigh; then 
soak it in a 5 to 7 S.G. Baume solu- 
tion of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), 
removing as much of the soak as pos- 
sible by using squeeze rolls (do not 
touch with fingers), dry and then 
bake in an oven at a temperature of 
220 degrees Fahrenheit for half an 
hour, shake out all the residue and 
again weigh. If the first weighing 
was three grains and the second only 
2 grains, the sulphuric acid has de- 
stroyed the cotton, which showed its 
presence to the extent of one grain 
out of three, or 33 per cent. The only 
practical test to ascertain the pres- 
ence of shoddy is the unwinding of 
a thread and noting the length of fi- 
bre. By the use of a microscope it 
may be found that the scales or serra- 
tions peculiar to woolen fibre are rub- 
bed off, but this is not an easy way 
of testing. 



Russian Novelty Blanket. 



The illustration, though giving an 
idea of the appearance of the auto 
robe here described, fails to con- 
vey to the mind of the observer 
the beauty of the fabric. Both 
face and back are covered with a long, 
silky nap, which adds materially to 
the effect. It is adaptable to a variety 
of uses and may be made in a wide 
range of styles and colorings. The 
sample shown has wide bars of color 
running transversely, the alternate 
stripes of olive, white and light brown 
combining to give it a beauty that 



cannot well be described and really 
must be seen to be appreciated. De- 
signing on this particular type of fab- 
ric is confined almost entirely to effec- 
tive 

COLOR COMBINATIONS, 
as weave changes would not be no- 
ticeable under the full, thick nap. 
Mills equipped with jacqurrds might 
turn their attention to fabrics con- 
structed along similar lines and should 
produce styles that would meet with 
a ready sale and earn extremely sat- 
isfactory dividends for the stockhold- 



48 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



ers, as the price of a robe at whole- 
sale, $11.50 to $16, is several times the 
cost of material and manufacturing 

The great disparity between cost 
and selling price is an ad- 
ditional proof of our contention that 
price in many instances is not based 
on intrinsic value, but is simply a 
question as to how much can be ob- 
tained. This is particularly true of 





Russian Blanket. 

the many novelty fabrics brought out 
from time to time, and is justified to 
a certain extent on many of the cloths 
that are dependent on the whims of 
fashion for their popularity. 

The fabric is one that might 
well be made by any of our do- 



mestic woolen mills, as no special 
machinery is required in its manufac- 
ture. 

The rapidly increasing use of the 
automobile has created a market for 
robes that is expanding by leaps and 
bounds. That greater cognizance is not 
taken of the opportunities offered bur 
textile mills in this field is a matter 
of no little surprise. Possibly the fear 
that a change in the character of the 
demand would find them with stocks 
on their hands that would with diffi- 
culty be moved, has deterred some of 
our mills from attempting to cater to 
this trade. That extreme novelties are 
very poor property when the vogue for 
them is at an end is very true, but it 
hardly seems possible that a change in 
the style of robes would be so radical 
as to depreciate the price to a point 
where any considerable loss would be 
incurred. Then, too, the price of nov- 
elties is invariably figured on a basis 
that allows of a material drop in price 
at the end of the season, if necessary, 
to dispose of the small quantity in 
stock. 

The fabrication requires a good 

KNOWLEDGE OF STOCKS, 
as on the stock mixture used the suc- 
cess of the fabric depends entirely. A 
feature that is somewhat out of the 
ordinary in the construction of wool- 
en fabrics is the extreme dis- 
parity in weight of the warp and 
filling. It is not at all uncom- 
mon to find a fabric in which the 
warp or filling predominates, but the 
extreme difference noted here is 
rather unusual. The face texture is 
low, but the production will be lower 
than this fact would seem to indicate, 
as the back of the fabric is produced 
with a separate filling, though iden- 
tical in color and stock mixture with 
that used for the face. The warp has 
32 ends per inch of a three-run ran- 
dom mix, made from a three- eighths 
wool and shoddy. The filling is made 
from mohair noils, spun to three- 
quarters run. The most 

DIFFICULT FEATURE 
connected with the manufacture of 
this fabric is the production of the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



49 



filling yarns. As the stock used is 
rather short and slippery, it will re- 
quire cooperation between the carder 
and spinner to secure good results. 
The roving must be made relatively 
fne, as the nature of the stock will 
permit of but little drawing on the 
mule. 

With filling as coarse as is required 
to give a fabric of the desired weight, 
a copping machine is almost a neces- 
sity, as otherwise the looms will be 
stopped a great deal of the time for 
shuttle changing, which may be obvi- 
ated to a considerable extent by means 
of the slight additional expense in- 
volved in the copping. The finished 
width of the robe is 60 inches, which 
will necessitate laying the warp about 
77 inches in the loom, and the great 
weight and bulk of the fabric will re- 
quire taking the pieces off about 36y 2 
yards long, which should give 18 fin- 
ished robes to each piece. The goods 
are fulled in the grease, well scoured, 
extracted and placed on the napper. 
When the nap has been well raised 
place on the wet brush, give two or 
three runs and steam blow them, af- 
terward forcing cold water through 
them, change ends and repeat the 
steam and cold water treatment. Dry, 
shear off the long hair, brush and cut 
for binding. 



nnanuuco 
■■■■■■■a 

□CLcuaaa 

■DMMBB 

□□Qoaa«Q 
■■■(=)■■■■ 
DBnaoaGQ 
■■■■■_■■ 

■ «■■■■■_! 
DDDQUauD 
■QBMBH 
OQQCnDLM 



8 harness, straight draw. 

LAYOUT. 
1,920 ends, 12% reed, 2 per dent = 76.8". 
48 picks. 

STOCK MIXTURE. 
Warp: 

75% % woo! @ 48c = 36c. 

25% med. shoddy @ 16c = 4c. 

16) 40c. 

Per ounce 2%c. 

Filling: 

Mohair noils @ 18c. per lb. = l%c. per oz. 

CALCULATIONS. 

1,920 ends 3 run = 6.40 oz. 

10% take-up = .64 oz. 

76.8X48 

48 picks % run = = 49.15 oz. 

75 

Loom weight 56.19 oz. 

Finish 6 lbs. per blanket. 72" x 60". 

COST. 

7.04 oz. + 15% shrinkage = 8.28 oz. 

49.15 oz. + 20% shrinkage = 60.14 oz. 

8.28 oz. @ 2%c = $ .207 

60.14 oz. @ 1%C. = .677 

Cost of stock % .884 

Manufacturing, 48 picks = .324 

Net cost per yard $1,208 



Double Cloth Mackinaw 



The derivation of the name Macki- 
naw, as applied to the material for 
outer garments so popular at present, 
is explained in a variety of ways. 
One of the most plausible is, that it 
comes from the common abbreviation 
of" Mackinac, the name of an 
island in the strait connecting Lakes 
Michigan and Huron. The name was 
formerly used chiefly on the upper 
Great Lakes and owes its origin to 
the fact that Fort Mackinaw was for 
many years the most remote post in 
the Northwest, and from this point a 
large number of Indians received their 
supplies, and the term Mackinaw 



blanket was coined to distinguish 
those furnished by the Government 
Garments made from this type of 
fabrics were frequently called blan- 
ket coats, but of late the name Macki- 
naw has superseded all others. The 
fabrics were originally all single 
cloths, well felted and practically re- 
pellent, but at present many are made 
in cloths of double construction and 
are not felted to any extent. The 
characteristic of the cloth is the bold 
design in strongly contrasting colors. 
The manufacture of these fabrics 
has been the means of keeping many 
looms employed that otherwise would 



50 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



have been idle for the past year or 
more. Coats of the most bizarre ap- 
pearance have been extremely popu- 
lar among the younger men and 
women, particularly in schools and 
colleges. In some instances, the col- 
lege colors are skillfully blended in the 
cloth and a very pleasing effect is pro- 
duced. The fabric presents no par- 
ticular difficulty in its production and 
can be manufactured by any mill with 
ordinary fancy cassimere equipment. 
The fabrics are made in all grades, 
from the lowest cotton and shoddy 
combination to that constructed of 
pure wool. The sample we have for 
analysis is made entirely of well- 
grown shorn wool of quarter-blood 
grade. If wools are purchased that 
are well graded, 

VERY LITTLE SORTING 
will be required, in fact the fleeces 
need only to be skirted if the entire 
production of the mill is to be this 
one fabric. The skirted stock should 
be run through a duster if any con- 
siderable quantity of loose dirt is 
present, so that as much as possible 
may be removed before the scouring 
operation, the best form of duster to 
be used for this purpose is an open 
question. 

Many manufacturers are opposed to 
the use of the cone duster or willow, 
as it is commonly termed, claiming 
that its action is too harsh and tends 
to shorten the fibre to a considerable 
degree. This feature, however, is not 
as prominent a factor in treating 
clothing wools as it would be in the 
case of long stapled combing wools. 
It is probably the most common tyne 
of duster to be found in modern wool- 
en mills and is well adapted to the 
purpose for which it is constructed. 
The operation of the machine is very 
simple and requires no particular 
skill in its care or oneration. The 
principle of operation is simply beat- 
ing the wool by means of a revolving 
cylinder below which a screen is sus- 
pended that allows the foreign matter 
to fall through, retaining the stock. 
The cylinder is cone-shaned, the 
larger end about 48 inches and the 
smaller end 24 inches in diameter, 
with a length of approximately eight 
feet. The cylinder is built upon a 



shaft of some two inches in diameter, 
with spiders or arms to which wooden 
lags or rails are attached, usually 
four in number. Each lag is supplied 
with iron teeth projecting about three 
inches. At the back of the machine 
is a cylinder provided with short, 
curved or cockspur teeth, which 
serve to comb or open out the wool 
as it is operated on by the straight 
teeth of the main cylinder. The screen 
under the main cylinder is made In 
two parts, so that it may be readily 
removed for cleaning. To remove the 
lighter dust and chaff, 

AN EXHAUST FAN 
is usually provided, which is attached 
to the top of the duster and connected 
to the inside of the cover of the cylin- 
der. In operation, a current of air is 
in constant motion through the dust- 
er, carrying away the dust and lighter 
impurities through a pipe discharging 
outside the mill. To prevent the stock 
from being removed with the dirt a 
suitable screen is placed below the 
fan opening. The lower part of the 
duster is made as nearly air-tight as 
possible, so that the air in the space 
below the screen will be compara- 
tively without motion; by so doing 
the draft induced by the fan will not 
prevent the falling of the heavier por- 
tions of the dirt as they are loosened 
from the wool by the action of the 
cvlinder and dron through the screen. 
The feeding mechanism consists of 
an anron of lattice on which the wool 
may be fed by hand or a self- feed. 
This anron receives its motion from 
a train of gears so arrans-ed that the 
movement of a lever enables the op- 
erator to ston the travel of the apron. 
At the delivery end of the an^on are 
a nair of cocksmir ro^s. which, work- 
ing in coniunction with the anron, de- 
liver the wool to the cvlinder. 

To onerate the machine, the wool is 
fed to the moving feed apron and»de- 
livered to the cocksmir feed rolls. 
The teeth of the cylinder then beat 
the stock, loosening the impurities, 
and the heavy dirt drons through th» 
screen under the cylinder, the lighter 
dust, etc., being drawn off by the fan. 
The stock passes from the small end 
of the cylinder to the larger end and 
is discharged through an opening at 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



51 



the back. The use of a machine of 
' this character is to be commended, 
as it puts the stock in excellent con- 
dition for the next operation, that of 
scouring. 

THE PROPER SCOURING OF WOOL 

is an operation that requires not only 
a certain skill on the part of the op- 
erator, but also proper appliances and 
pure materials. While it is true that 
wools of the type used in Mackinaws 
are capable of standing much harsher 
treatment without serious injury than 
finer grades, it is not advisable to use 
harsh alkalis as detergents. It is un- 
usual for such wools to be heavily 
yolked, and that being the case, a 
strong soap will not be necessary to 
cleanse them perfectly. The best ma- 
terial to use is a pure potash soap 
containing no free caustic alkali. To 
strengthen this, a very satisfactory 
product is urine substitute, or ammo- 
niated potash. The scouring liquor 
need not be particularly strong and 
above all, see that the temperature is 
not over 130 degrees Fahrenheit. 
Strong alkalis and hot baths are 
responsible for a great part of 
the poor work in subsequent op- 
erations. The scouring bath for 
wools of this type may be made 
up with soda soaps if desired, but 
it is not to be advised, particularly 
if part of the stock is to be used in 
the white. The use of soda has a 
very pronounced tendency to produce 
a yellow tinge on the wool and should 
be avoided whenever possible. The 
scouring machine should have not 
less than three bowls, the first two 
containing scouring liquors, the last 
clear water for rinsing. A very eco- 
nomical arrangement is one that dis- 
charges the wool from the last bowl 
of the scouring machine to a travel- 
ing apron which, in turn, delivers it 
to the feed apron of the drying ma- 
chine. By means of such an arrange- 
ment in connection with a self-feed 
for the scouring machine two men 
will be able to scour and dry ten 
thousand pounds of wool daily. 

The mistake is often made of dry- 
ing the stork too rapidly, in fact the 
use of artificial heat in wool drying 
should be avoided if practicable, as 
stock dried naturally will produce 



goods having a much better handle 
than can be obtained from stocks 
dried by artificial means. The wool 
is more lofty and has a decidedly 
softer, fuller touch. The dyeing of 
the raw stock is usually accomplished 
in round wooden "kettles" holding 
from 50 to 300 pounds. Better results 
are obtained if the kettles are not 
crowded, allowing plenty of room for 
the stock, with a sufficient bath to 
float and cover the wool. 

The dyestuffs used may be for bot- 
tom or top chrome process, as the 
dyer elects, though top chromes are 
to be preferred, giving slightly 
brighter colors. Too much poling 
should be avoided, as the stock is 
liable to become rolled and difficult 
to open out on the cards. In the 
picker room the use of mineral oils 
should not be permitted, as they are 
extremely difficult to remove in the 
finishing process. The lubricant best 
suited to wool is, of course, olive oil, 
but its extremely high price prohibits 
its use on ordinary fabrics. In default 
of this we are forced to use a less 
expensive oil, and find that a 

GOOD RED OR LARD OIL 
will answer the purpose nicely. The 
emulsion may be prepared by mixing 
the oil and water in the proportions 
of two parts water to one part oil, 
emulsifying the mixture by the addi- 
tion of a small quantity of borax or 
other mild alkali. The emulsion may 
be applied hot and after a light beat- 
ing with a pole to spread the emulsion 
through the stock, the picking opera- 
tion may be started. In the case of 
all wool solid colors, it will be un- 
necessary to put through the mixing 
picker but once. If there are several 
colors in the mixture, or a variety of 
stocks to be blended, it will be neces- 
sary to run at least three times to ob- 
tain a homogeneous mixture. 

MANY CASES OF TROUBLE 
in the finishing room may be traced 
back to careless or improper work in 
the preparatory processes. It is not 
unusual to find that the cause of 
cockles, which develop in the fulling 
mill, is insufficient mixing of the 
stocks in the picker house. Difficulty 
in scouring fabrics is frequently 
caused by the use of an oil on the 



52 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



stock which does not readily saponify, 
or may be traced still farther back 
to the wool scouring, where improper 
handling or the use of h^rd water may 
have had an effect on the wool that 
will require much time and labor to 
remedy. 

The Cording of stocks such as these 
is comparatively simple, as the wools 
are open and lofty with little or no 
short fibre to create pills or nibs. 
The clothing should be in good condi- 
tion, the workers not set too close, 
yet with sufficient contact to comb 
out the stock and complete the mix- 
ing. The condensers need not be set 
close, as the stock will make good 
roving without hard rubbing. In us- 
ing all wool for the mixture, the rov- 
ing may be made heavier thau would 
be possible were there any consid- 
erable quantity of short stock used. 
This will enable the carder to pro- 
duce roving enough from two cards 
to keep three ordinary mules busy and 

REDUCE HIS EXPENSE 

per pound to a very satisfactory fig- 
ure. With well-made roving from 
quarter-blood stock the mules should 
not stop from start to finish of a set, 
except for piecing in soools or work of 
that nature. It should be no trouble 
for a spinner to keep his ends up, as 
breakages from any cause should be 
very rare. Yarns snun well should be 
even, full and round, with sufficient 
elasticity to permit of stretching at 
least four inches to the vard. From 
such yarns it is possible to dress 
warps that will give maximum pro- 
duction in the weave room. The 
spooling is a very important opera- 
tion, though by many not so consid- 
ered if resists a**e to be> tne ba^s of 
opinion. The knots must be tied in 
such a manner as to avoid slipping 
and without lor" ends to twist around 
the other threads in weaving. The 
tension must be alike on each thread 
and spools made free from holes or 
double ends. It is frequently said 
that a warp well spooled is half 
dressed, and anvone who has had ex- 
perience with both classes of snool- 
ing will readily confirm th^ truth of 
the proverb. The dressing may be 
done at fairly hteh speed with good 
yarn well spooled, but too much ten- 



sion should not be placed on the 
spools. The ideal warp is one free 
from threads out, with sections even, 
and all the 

LIFE AND ELASTICITY RETAINED 
in the yarn. With these conditions 
fulfilled the lot of the weaver should 
be comparatively easy. With the 
loom in good shape, the speed may be 
100 picks a minute and give perfect 
results, as the weave is not hard nor 
the harnesses crowded. When the 
warp is started, the fixer should see 
that the loom is in as nearly perfect 
condition as may be, every nut tight, 
the boxes and picking motion as well 
as the head motion timed correctly, 
and the shuttles smooth, free from 
defective eyes and with sharp points. 
Examine the pickers, see that they 
throw the shuttle straight and that 
picker and power straps are in good 
condition. The stop motion should 
be inspected and oiled, as it is not 
easily reached when the cloth is 
weaving. 

After measuring and inspecting in 
the weave room, the pieces are ready 
for the burlers. For this operation 
the girls should be furnished with a 
sloping table with perfectly smooth 
top, preferably of metal, which will 
enable them to detect the knots very 
readily, as the hands are passed over 
the surface of the goods. Re- 
move all foreiism matter, slues, etc., 
and mark all rrrmerfections which re- 
quire the attention of the sewers. 
After the pieces have been burled 
and sewed they should have some 
work on the nauning machine in the 
grease. This is not customary in fin- 
ishing cassimeres, and is not neces- 
sarv in finishing Mackinaws com- 
posed entirelv of wool, but is very 
essential on low-srra.de eoods. 

THE FULLING 
will not renuire much time nor 
a stronsr soan. A very satisfac- 
tory fulling soap for all wool groods 
may be made up with a pure neutral 
palm oil soan. built un to the 
requisite strength with a good alkali. 
Care must be taken to hava the soap 
evenlv distributed over the nieces or 
uneven fusing will be the result. 
Hpa"< r v Ma^Hnaws will need to be 
fulled to within an inch of the fin- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



53 



/shed width, as they will go up in 
width very little in subsequent opera- 
tions. From the fulling mills they 
should go at once to the washers and 
usually may be scoured without the 
use of additional soap. The goods 
should be first washed with warm 
water to float out all the dirt and 
grease, then rinsed for 20 to 30 min- 
utes in cold water; before removing 
from the washer a quart of ammonia 
may be added to the rinse water, 
which will brighten the colors some- 
what. After drying give a run on the 
brush and then shear to even up the 
nap and remove any long fibres, give 
a light press, inspect and roll up. 

LAYOUT. 
2,688 ends; reed 9% — 4 = 70.7" + 1%" for 

listing = 72.2" over all. 
48 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,688 ends: 2 run = 13.44 oz. + 

7% • = 14.38 oz. 

48 X 72.2 

48 picks 2 V* run = = 15.40 oz. 

225 

Loom weight 29.78 oz. 



COST. 
29.78 oz. + 15% shrinkage = 35.03 oz. 

35.03 oz. Si 40c. per lb = $ .87575 

Manufacturing, 48 picks = .35000 

Mill cost $1.22575 

Dressed: 
Mixture 112 24 12 40 12 24 112 336 
Black 32 12 12 12 12 32 112 

448 
•6 

2,688 

♦Sections. 

Filling: 
White 32 12 12 12 12 32 112 

Mixture 116 24 12 48 12 24 116 352 

464 

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BOBO BBBBOOOBBBB 



BANNOCKBURNS 



The name Bannockburn is now applied to a number of cloths which are 
not even remotely related to the true type of fabric of this name. The origin 
of the peculiar cloth bearing this name is a subject of dispute, but all agree 
that it was originated in Scotland, some claiming the honor of its introduc- 
tion to a Galashiels weaver, others as stoutly maintaining that the first Ban- 
nockburn to be sold as such was the product of an Alva loom. Be that as it 
may, the typical Bannockburn tweed is now well and favorably known wher- 
ever the English language is spoken. The fabric, while in construction 
very similar to the ordinary Scotch tweed, having practically the same tex- 
ture and manufactured from the same stock, differs materially in appear- 
ance. The fabrics commonly known as tweeds are made from threads of 
two-ply yarns, alternated with a thread of single, as are the fabrics here 
described. The distinguishing feature of the cloth under discussion is the 
fact that in making the two-ply thread, commonly termed 

Double and Twist, 

the two threads used for producing the finished yarn are of contrasting 
colors, while in the ordinary tweed the single threads are of the same color, 
and when twisted show comparatively little of the twist effect. To anyone 
at all familiar with textile manufacturing, it is not necessary to state that 
the use of two colors in producing a double and twist thread permits of 
developing a variety of styles of singular beauty. By the judicious selection 
of colors for the primary threads and good taste in combining them on the 
twisting frame, it is possible to produce an extremely satisfactory line of 
twists, which the skilled designer, with his knowledge of weaves, may blend 



54 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

into fabrics that will please, the most fastidious dresser, or, on the other 
"" hand, produce cloths that will delight the eye of the young man who wants 
a garment that is stylish and nobby. 

In the manufacture of the higher grades of Bannockburns, nothing but 
pure wool is used, and this should be, pre erably, of hig v quarter or three- 
eightbs grade, selected from bright, well-grown wools, full of life and elas- 
ticity. The drugs used in dyeing the stock must be selected with a view 
to securing colors that are 

Bright and Lively, 
or much of their effectiveness will be lost. The carding and spinning of 
the threads for making the twist will require especial care, or the resultant 
yarns will be far from satisfactory. While in an ordinary tweed or cassi- 
mere a sligbt unevenness of the thread will make no appreciable difference 
in the finished goods, the direct opposite is the case with fabrics made from 
double-colored twists. In fact, the most prevalent and annoying defects to 
be found in this type of fabric are caused by variations in the twist, result- 
ing from uneven yarns. 

The carder will need to pay particular attention to the size of the rov- 
ing, see that the side ends are not light or heavy, watch the weight of top 
and bottom spools on the finisher, and see that the roving goes to the spin- 
ner in as nearly perfect condition as possible. A frequent cause of trouble 
is defective feed rolls. The rolls may be slightly sprung and the clothing 
or the gears so badly worn that at times a tooth slips by and allows an ex- 
cess of stock to be carried to the cylinder. The stock used in the sample 
analyzed is a mixture of 85 per cent wool and 15 per cent shoddy for the 
twist threads and the single warp, while the single yarn in the filling is 
spun from a blend of 50 per cent wool and 50 per cent shoddy. By using a 
mixture of this grade for the manufacture of the twist threads, a good pro- 
duction is assured from the cards, as the roving will readily admit of spin- 
ning at half- draft for the four and a quarter run. The twist in the single 
yarns for making the two-ply should be left hand, the finished thread twist- 
ed 12 turns to the right, making a thread equal in size to a two-run single. 
The 31-run warp may be spun two-thirds draft, twist to the right, and the 
2% -run filling should be spun half -draft, twist to the right. Warps made 
from the stock described will require no sizing, so may be made on the 
dry dressing frame. The use of long pins on the reel will admit of build- 
ing the sections to such a height that a long warp may be made, which, by 
using a warp compressor, may be placed on the ordinary beam without 
using undue friction on the reel during beaming. Even if the extra length 
of warp on each beam is not an advantage at all times, the use of the 
compressor is strongly advised, as warps on which it is used invariably give 
much better results in the way of more nearly perfect work and increased 
production in the weave room, owing to the lessened strain on the yarn in 
the beaming operation, and the 

Preservation of the Elasticity 
of the yarn. To anyone at all familiar with textile manufacturing, the 
great advantage derived from the latter feature will be readily apparent, as 
it is obvious that the less a yarn is strained in previous operations, the 
better it will be able to endure the stress incident to the intermittent ac- 
tion of the reed in beating the weft into the fell of the cloth. 

The finishing must be well looked after, if the best possible results are 
to be secured. Burling is a simple operation, requiring no special skill, but 
care must be used in removing the knots, lest the ends be broken off so 
short that in further processes they do not shrink back, leaving the defect 
commonly known as pin holes. The sewers must be instructed to replace all 
coarse and uneven twist, as imperfections of this nature are one of the 
most frequent causes of claims. Much of this could be avoided by having the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



55 



twist yarns sorted when taken from the twister, rejecting bobbins which 
are imperfect, thus preventing their being woven into the cloth, and caus- 
ing not only much extra labor but oftentimes very serious loss. Goods made 
from straight wool mixtures may be fulled in the grease, but if there is any 
suspicion of danger of staining the light colors used in the twist, a prelim- 
inary scouring would be advisable. Bannockburns should be fulled to the 
finished width, dried an inch wider, and the operations of dry finishing 
will again shrink them to the correct width. In general, these fabrics are 
not closely shorn, and are finished to loom length. 




18-Ounce 



Bannockburn, 
Wide. 



56 Inches 



Layout for 18-oz. fabric: 

2,016 ends, reed, 7% X 4 in dent = 67.2" 

plus 2" for listing = 69.2" over all. 
32 picks. 



Warp: 

1,008 ends 2/4 run D. T. 5.04 oz. 
Plus 10% loom shrink- 
age 

1,008 ends 3% run 3.07 oz. 

Plus 10% loom shrink- 
age 

S.ll oz. 



Filling: 

32 picks per inch X 69.2" = 2,214. 

1.107 picks 2/4 run D. T. 5.53 oz. 

Plus 10% loom shrink- 
age 6.08 oz. 

1.107 picks 2y 2 run 4.42 oz. 

Plus 10% loom shrink- 
age 4.86 oz. 

Finished weight 18.06 oz. 10.94 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

The black and white yarns used for the 
2/4 double twist, are spun Y 2 draft, twist 
to left, 4% run, allowing 6% take-up in 
twisting, then twisted together, 12 turns 
per inch to the right. The 3% run mix- 
ture warp yarn is made from the same 
blend of stock spun 2/3 draft, twist t" 
the right. 



85% med. wool @ 45c = $ .3825 

15% shoddy @ 33c = .0555 

16) $ .4380 

An ounce $ .0274 



Warp: 

Black and white 2/4 run D. 
Mixture 3% run 



2 X 1.008 = 2.016 ends. 



Filling, 32 picks: 

Black and white 2/4 run D. T. 

Black, 2% run 



HI 1 = 1 
I IH = 1 



CHAIN DRAFT. 

■□OB 

■■□□ 
run 

□□■■ 
STRAIGHT DRAW. 
Note — Twill runs to the left on face. 



The black 2% run filling is spun % draft 
twist to the left. 

50% med. wool @ 45c = $ .2250 

50% shoddy @ 33e = .1650 

16) $ .390C 

An ounce $ .0244 



56 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



5.54 oz. 2/4 run D. T. warp. 
6.08 oz. 2/4 run D. T. filling. 
3.37 oz. 3% run warp. 

14.99 oz. + 15% shrinkage = 17.24 oz. @ $.0274 

4.86 oz. 2% run filling + 15% shrinkage = 5.59 oz. @ $.0244. 

Manufacturing: 32 picks 

Mill cost 

Loom weight, 22.83 oz. 



$ .4724 
.1363 



$ .6087 
.2590 



$ .8677 



22 2-10-OUNCE BANNOCKBURN SUITING. 

The 22 2-10-ounce, 56-inch wide b annockburn is made with heavier 
yarns and lower-priced stock blend than in sample of 18-ounce just de- 
scribed. 




22 2-10-Ounce Bannockburn, 56 Inches 
Wide. 

Layout: 

1,920 ends, reed 7 X 4 in dent = 68%" 
inside of listing; plus 2" for listing = 
70%" over all. 
28 picks. 

Warp: 

A Black and white D. T. 2/2% and 3% run 

B Black and red D. T. 2/2% and 3% run 

C Black and gold D. T. 2/2% and 3% run 



COST CALCULATION. 

Material: 

The black for double twist is spun % 
draft, twist to the left, to 2% run, allow- 
ing 5% take-up in twisting. 

50% med. wool @ 45c = $ .2250 

50% shoddy @ 18c = .0900 

16) $ .3150 

An ounce $ .0197 

The white, red and gold for double twist 
is spun % draft, twist to left, 3% run 
to allow about 4% take-up in twisting. 

70% med. wool @ 45c = $ .3150 

30% shoddy @ 33c = .0990 

16) $ .4140 

An ounce $ .0259 

2/2% and 3% run warp D. T. is twisted 11 
turns per inch to the right. 

58% black 2% run @ $.0197... = $ .0114 
42% color 3% run @ $.0259... = .0109 

Cost per ounce $ .0223 

The black filling is spun % draft 1% run 
twist to the right. 

70% shoddy @ 18c = $ .1260 

30% med. wool @ 45c = .1350 

16) $ .2610 

An ounce ...$ .0163 



Filling: 
28 picks. 
Black 1% run. 



I | = 2 X 480 = 960 

I = 1 X 480 = 480 

I 1 I = 1 X 480 = 480 

4 X 480 = 1.920 
CHAIN DRAFT. 



STRAIGHT DRAW. 
Note — Twill runs to the left on face. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



57 



Warp: 
1,920 ends 2/2% and 3% 

run 10.97 oz. 

Plus 10% loom shrink- 
age 



Filling: 

28 picks X 70%" = 1,974 

picks 1% run 11.25 oz. 

Plus 10% loom shrink- 
age 12.37 oz. 



Finished weight 22.22 oz. 24.43 oz 



12.06 oz. 2/2% run warp + 15% shrinkage = 13.87 

12.37 oz. 1% run tilling + 20% shrinkage = 14.84 



$.0223 = $ .3093 
.0163 = .2419 



Manufacturing: 2S picks 



$ .5512 
.2420 



Mill cost 

Loom weight, 28.71 ounces. 



HAIR LINE DRESS GOODS 



The hair line and tricot are very closely allied fabrics, and a few years 
ago formed the major part of the output of many of our woolen mills. The 
cloths were made in a great variety of weights and colors for both men's 
and women's wear. By changing the color arrangement in the dressing pat- 




Hair Line Dress Goods. 



tern it is possible to make a variety of widths of stripes. The patterns 
most in vogue were the single thread hair line and the double thread stripe 
shown in the illustration at the head of this description. The weave em- 
ployed for the production of the hair line is the four-harness broken twill, 
three up and one down, and is used in the lighter weights without either 
warp or filling back. The goods were invariably made with a 

Clear Finish and from Fine Wools. 
At the present time they are manufactured in very small quantities, the 
vogue having been superseded almost entirely by other styles. The most 
recent example of the fabric which has come to our notice is one made 



58 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



from coarse stock, with a semi-cheviot finish in overcoating weight. 

The fabric illustrated is primarily intended for use as dress goods and 
is made from a fine medium wool in two shades of mixture. The blends 
must be thoroughly mixed in the picker room so as to avoid the 

Blotchy Appearance 
that is characteristic of so many of the mixtures shown by mills where 
attention to detail is not, to say the least, carried to extremes. To pro- 
duce the best results on fabrics of this character, particular attention 
should be given to the selection of the wools used for the light colors in 
the mixture, as by so doing the danger of specks can be eliminated to a very 
marked degree. The wools should be free and open, with no sign of "pills" 
or nits. The cards must be in excellent condition, the clothing true and 
sharp, and set close enough to give a clean, clear sliver from the second 
breaker. As the stock used is a fine clear wool it will be possible to make 
the roving fairly heavy, half draft at least. That is to say, the weight of 25 
yards of roving will equal that of 50 yards of yarn. This will not only give 
a relatively larger production from the card room but will allow sufficient 
drafting on the mule to insure a well made, round, elastic thread that will 
give an excellent account of itself in the weaving and finishing processes. 
Hair lines of the type here described are 

Not Felted to Any Extent, 
and are therefore laid comparatively narrow in the reed. Indeed, to many 
who are accustomed to the heavier, finer fabrics for men's wear purposes, 
it may appear that the width given in our layout is entirely inadequate to 
produce the desired results. This is not the case, however, as the layout 
here given is not theoretical, but is taken from actual mill practice, and 
has been found to give excellent results. The scouring may be done before 
fulling, or may follow that operation, as the judgment of the finisher may in- 
dicate. When dry, the pieces should be well brushed, and should shear 
out sufficiently clear without the application of the napping process. After 
shearing, brush, spray and press. 

9 3-10-Ounce Hair Line Dress Goods. 

.Layout: 1.664 ends 3% run warp 4.72 oz. 

1,664 ends, reed, 13 X 2 In dent, 64" 4- Plus 10% loom take-up 5.05 oz. 

2" for listing = 66". 1.716 picks 3% run flll- 

26 picks. ingr 4.57 oz. 

Four harness. Plus 5% loom take-up.. 4.75 oz. 

STRAIGHT DRAW. Finished weight...... 9.29 oz. 9.80 oz. 

^ COST CALCULATION. 

Eub'2 Material: 

ricsSS Warp and filling: 

&^ 1S|S Med. wool @ 54c = $ .5400 

^.j.*.* ■ 

JJOQ 16) $ .5400 

$* Minn pk-fi' 1 An ounce $ .033' 

Z mama Lt. fill. 

O ■■£■ Dk. fill. The warp yarn is spun % draft 3% runs, 

« D "" Lt. fill. twist to right. The filling is spun Ms draft 

k 3% run, twist to right. 

HARNESS DRAFT. 
Warp: 

A Light mixture 3V 2 run I 2 | I = 2 X 416 = 832 

B Dark mixture 3% run | | 2 | = 2 X 416 = 832 

4 x 416 = 1,664 
Filling: 

26 picks per inch X 66" = 1,716. 

A Light mixture 3% run l 1 I I = 1 

B Dark mixture 3% run | | 1 | = 1 

2 

9 80 oz. -f- 12% shrinkage' = 10.98 oz. @ $.0337 .....".."...= $ .3695 

Manufacturing: 26 picks .2340 

■ Mill cbst (per yard) ...... . .".".:. ;.:..": ....... .V. ... .. ...\ ...... .^. '■■'>$ .S035 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



59 



LADIES' COATING FABRIC 



Changeable in Shade. 

Nothing is more subject to the vagaries of fashion than the fabrics used 
for ladies' coats. Some twenty years ago various types of boucles were 
very much in evidence and have been superseded by a variety of novelty 
cloths until the cycle has been completed, and the boucle is once more in 
favor. Not many years have elapsed since the fabric here described and 
illustrated was extremely popular for spring and fall jackets, while at the 
present time it is doubtful if such a cloth could be marketed at any price. 




11 -Ounce Ladies' Coaling i-aouc. 

The peculiar characteristic of the fabric is obtained, not alone by the weave 
or color, but by a tasteful combination of the weave best adapted to bring 
out the effect and well-selected shades of warp and filling in contrasting 
colors. The general effect is a two-toned cloth, changing color as the 
angle of vision changes. These cloths are finished clear, so as to imitate 
as nearly as possible a fabric made from worsted yarns. 

Contrary to ihe general opinion, this effect is not to be obtained by giving 
excessive twist to the yarn, but rather by using less than the standard 
number of turns to the inch. Those conversant with the method of manu- 
iacturing both types of yarn will readily appreciate the reason for reducing 



60 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

the twist. In the manufacture of worsted yarns, it will be remembered, the 
method pursued is to draft endwise, constantly reducing the size 
of the drawing until a roving is produced small enough to spin to the re- 
quired number. The resulting thread is one that has its constituent fibres 
laid parallel to each other and extended to their full length. As the eye 
looks on the finished thread it sees only the sides of a bundle of fibres. 
Woolen yarns, on the other hand, are not made by endwise drafting, nor 
is the par^lielization of the fibves a xeature of the sys.e a of m,oi .racture. 
The combing effect of the card is neutralized to a great extent by the method 
of taking the stock from the doffer. Instead of removing the web in the 
direction of its line of motion through the card itself, it is drawn off at 
right angles through a tube at the side, and this "side drawing," as it is 

Placed Diagonally 

on the feed table of the next machine. In forming the roving for the mules, 
the procedure is very different from the gradual reduction of the worsted 
sliver by successive draftings. The wool is removed from the rapidly 
revolving cylinder, by the ring doffers, whose surface velocity is omy a 
fractional part of that of the cylinder, -which deposits on them a very much 
jumbled up mass ol fibres, which are anything but parallel. 

In the spinning operation, it is true there is a certain amount of drafting, 
but nothing like sufficient to place the fibres parallel. In looking at a 
woolen thread the eye gets a view of a tangled mass of fibres lying in all 
directions, with the ends and sides presented indiscriminately, and the 
greater the amount of twist in the yarn, the greater the confusion of 
fibres resulting. To approximate the appearance of a worsted thread, there- 
fore, the less the effect of the drawing on the mule, should be neutralized 
by twisting. To obtain the best results on fabrics of the type here describ- 
ed, it is necessary that the selection of the wools to be used receive careful 
attention. The stock must be fine, with good staple and more than average 
felting qualities. The 

Fine Medium or Half-Blood 
Montanas possess these characteristics and will be found peculiarly adapted 
for the purpose. The fleeces should be carefully sorted, the paint and large 
masses of burs clipped out. In scouring stock of this grade, no harsh deter- 
gents should be used, nor should the scouring bath be over 125 to 130 degrees 
Fahrenheit. Excessive heat and improper materials used in scouring will have 
a very serious effect on the working qualities of the wool. Another source 
of injury to the wool fibre that is frequently overlooked is the use of too 
great heat in the drying. If time will permit, no better method of drying 
wool can possibly be used than the so-called cold air system. This method 
consists of placing the wool in a suitable screen or dryer and forcing air, 
at the normal temperature of the room, through the stock. This method 
retains all the life and vitality in the stock, with no impairment of its work- 
ing qualities. 

The importance of retaining, as far as possible, the natural characteris- 
tics of the wool fibres is too often lost sight of in the rush to get the raw 
stock into finished goods in the shortest possible time. This is a very 
serious mistake, and is responsible, largely, for the fancied superiority of 
the fabrics made abroad. The gain in time is more apparent than real, 
and the necessity for such undue haste can readily be overcome by making 
systematic plans for the work to be accomplished. It will invariably be 
found that in the mill where lots have to be rushed through the various 
departments to avoid delaying some advanced operation, the 

Fundamental Defect 
is a lack of system which might be easily remedied, with a marked increase 
of efficiency, and a notable improvement in results. When dry, the wool 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



61 



may be taken to the dyehouse, frequently the source of much subsequent 
trouble. To one unfamiliar with the woolen business it may seem strange 
to have the statement that the "wool was burned in the dyehouse," but 
that is a familiar tale from the carder when questioned as to the reason 
for a certain lot running so badly. That irreparable injury may be done the 
wool during the dyeing is a tact too ouen verified m actual expeneu^e Cu netd 
any proof here. Excessive boiling is one very common cause of serious 
trouble in the card room and should be avoided in every case. It is im- 
possible for the best of dyers to get the desired shade at the first attempt 
every time, but care in poling the woul and good judgment in using the 
shading colors will do much toward lessening this evil. When colored 
and dried the stock is ready for the picker house, and if it contains burs , 

Should Be Run Through the Bur Picker 

for their removal. The batches for these fabrics are usually solid colors, 

and may be oiled and run through the mixing picker once, which should put 
them in condition for the cards. Before placing the lot on the cards, they 
should be ground if necessary, and the setting adjusted tor the stock. 
Better results will be obtained from a set clothed with fine wire. For 
yarns of this size and quality the first breaker should be clothed with 
wire not coarser than 32, wilh 34 on the second breaker and nnisher. 
Make the roving three and a half run for the warp and three run for the 
filling, which will give draft enough to make a smooth, strong thread with 
medium twist. No sizing should be required in the dressing, though many 
manufacturers will not agree with this statement. 

The weave used is usually the nine or ten harness whipcord, not an 
especially hard weave, and should give excellent results in the way of 
production with a minimum of imperfections due to warp breakage. Burling 
and sewiiig follow the usual routine and the goods should be fulled to 56 
inches before scouring. Do not trap in the mills as the goods are to finish 
loom yards. From the fulling mills, transfer at once to the washer, where 
they must be scoured thoroughly clean. Dry, shear, brush and press. 
To avoid rolling of the listings use two extra harnesses, drawing the list- 
ing two in a heddle and weave two up and two down. 



Ten harness. Whipcord. 
Repeat after five. 





, 


. 


X 


X 


X 


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X 


X 


X. 


/a 




X 


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Nine harness. Whipcord. 







X 


. 


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xf 


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r 


4 


/ 


i 


9 





STRAIGHT DRAW. 



STRAIGHT DRAW. 



62 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Layout: 
3,600 ends, 46 picks. 
Reed: 13—4—69.23" between listing. 

Warp: 
3,600 thr., 6% run 5.54 oz. 

Filling: 
46 picks, 6 run 5.46 oz. 

11.00 oz. 
10% loom take-up 1.10 oz. 

Loom weight 12.10 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 

Warp and Pilling: 
Fine grade wool @ 3%c. an oz = $ .5600 

Material: 
12.10 plus 15% shrinkage 
13.92 oz. @ 3V 2 c = $.4872 

Manufacturing: 

46 picks .3160 

Mill cost $ .8032 

To cheapen this fabric use 257 fine shoddy in 
filling. 



MIXTURE OVERCOATINGS 



Finished 24 Ounces. 



The overcoatings here illustrated are made from heavy yarn, frequently 
in rather bold designs, and when well-tailored have the nobby appearance 
that appeals to the man who wants something stylish but not extreme. The 
wools used are well-selected, bright fleeces, which aid very materially in 




24-Ounce Fancy Overcoating. 

giving character to the fabric. The fancy 24-ounce fabric is made with a 
very light mix or a white warp, with dark mixture or solid-colored filling. 
This tends to 

Emphasize the Weave Design, 

and throws the light spots into bold contrast. Opportunities for the design- 
er to show his skill in weave formation are well afforded in cloths of this 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



63 



nature, as the contrast in color of warp and filling is of great assistance in 
making the patterns well defined. 

In selecting the wools to be used for the white in the mixture, special 
attention should be paid to its freedom from the extremely short fibres 
which are apt to form nibs during the carding, and cannot be opened up 
thoroughly, forming specks, a defect that must be avoided at all hazards. 
Have the stock well sorted, and scour with a pure, well-made soap in a 
bath not exceeding 120 to 130 degrees Fahrenheit in temperature. The por- 
tion of wool intended to be used for white, either in mixture or solid, need 
not be dried but placed in 

The Bleaching Liquor, 

which has previously been prepared. Of the many methods of bleaching in 
common use, the most feasible for the mill without special facilities is prob - 
ably the use of bisulphite. This simply requires a clean dye-tub, and gives 
excellent results. The operation is extremely simple, and may be under- 
taken by any dyer without fear of injuring the stock or failure to secure a 
good bleach. 

The bath is prepared with 60 pounds of bisulphite of soda and 10 pounds 
of sulphuric acid. in 503 gallons of water. This is sufficient for 300 pounds 
of wool. The wool should be well poled for a short time to insure thorough 



BASKET LEAF TWILL. 





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Warp : 
Bleached white medium wool. 

Filling: 
Plain black or gray mixture; also made in 
herringbones. 



FOUR-LEAF TWILL, FACE AND BACK. 





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STRAIGHT DRAW. 



STRAIGHT DRAW. 



■..ayout: 
2.2S0 ends, 32 picks. 
Reed 7% — i — 76 inches between listing. 

A'arp: 
2,280 thr., 2 run 11.40 oz. 

■""illinpr: 

32 picks, 2 run 12.50 oz. 

.2" for listing:. 



10% loom take-up 2.: 

Loom weight 26.: 



COST CALCULATION. 

75% medium grade wool @ 44c $.3300 

25% medium grade of shoddy @ 20c .0500 

16)$ .3800 



An ounce 2.12%c. 

Material: 
26.29 plus 15%; 2.75 shrinkage. 
29.04 ounces @ 2.12%c $.6171 

Manufacturing : 

32 picks 2590 

5% cloth shrinkage 0462 



Mill cost $ .9223 



penetration of the bleaching liquor, and allowed to remain four or five 
hours, or still better, overnight. In the morning draw off the kettle, allow 
the stock to drain for a short time, extract and dry. Many superintendents 
object to the dead white of the bleached stock, which may be corrected by 
the use of a thin blue. A small percentage of a blue similar in type to S.K.Y. 
will change the shade of the resulting mixture to the steely tone which the 



64 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



majority of buyers prefer to the effect of the clear white. Have the stock 
well mixed in the picker room, using four quarts of oil to the hundred, in- 
suring ease of carding with little or no breaking of the fibre, and conse- 
quently 

Much Less Waste. 

A very common mistake made at this point in manufacturing is the ap- 
plication of too little oil, or the use of an inferior grade. This is an instance 
of "saving at the spigot, and wasting at the bunghole," characteristic of 
some managers. The extra expense involved by the use of good oil in suf- 



MAYO TWILL. FACE. 

FOUR LEAF TWILL BACK 

FULL DRAFT. 




Warn: 
Gray mixtures, 
grade wool. 

Filling: 
Plain black. 



l.|. ■ached white 



27!/ 2 -Ounce Overcoating. 



Layout: 
2,640 ends. 38 picks. 
Reed 9—4—73 1-3 inches wide between listing. 



Warp: 
2,640 thr., 2 run 



Filling: 
38 picks, 2 run 



.13.20 oz. 
.14.30 oz. 



Loom take-up, 10% 

I ,n«m wpteht 



27.50 oz 
. 2.75 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Made from same stock as above, 2.12%c an oz. 
Material: 
30.25 oz. plus 15% shrinkage. 
4.53 oz. 

34.78 oz. @ 2.12%c $.7390 

Manufacturing: 

38 picks _:......;..vv-;---: " !o540 



5% a yard cloth shrinkage. 
Mill cost $1.0760 



fi^w miantitv to thoroughly lubricate the fibres will be more than oyer- 
Sfbv the superior quality of the product and the greatly increased yield 
or^arn from agS 'weigh of stock laid down at the picker. On he thor- 
\ 11™^?? of the work in the picker room the success of subsequent 
ough Performance of the worK i pe rintendent would do well to per- 

sonaUv super?ise d fhlweightag and oiling" of every batch making sure that 
lach tot £ Sade up exactly as it should be. In carding, the ambition of the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 65 

overseer should be to produce the greatest possible weight of perfect rov- 
ing from each lot. The use of the adjective is intentional, as it will be 
readily appreciated that odIv from perfect roving can the spinner make per- 
fect yarn. Too many carders are able to see but one process, that in which 
they are particularly interested, and are prone to place the blame for in- 
ferior work on the dyer or the stock, when, in many instances, it belongs in 
his own department. To obtain perfect cloth it is absolutely essential that 
each oepartment head work in harmony with the others, but cases are often 
found where each overseer seems rejoiced to slight his work to a degree not 
easily discoverable and make trouble for those in charge of further proc- 
esses. It is especially essential for the carder and spinner to work together, 
as the processes are related as closely as the fingers to the hand. Production 
may be greatly increased by mutual co-operation in these departments. A 
slight change in the draft on the mules will enable the carder to secure a 
substantial increase in his output, while a change on the cards may make 
a material difference in the work on the mules. 

The roving should be made about two-thirds draft, medium twist to the 
right in the warp, with the filling twisted to the left. The installation of 
wide gauge mules with special long spindles for spinning warp yarns will 
give a 

Considerable Increase of Production 

over the standard gauge found in most of our fancy cassimere mills. One 
reason that so few are used is probably the fact that it would cause the 
purchasing of new jack spools and bobbins, which could be used only for 
making warp. This objection has but little weight in fact, as the danger of 
mixing bobbins is practically negligible, while, when the same bobbins are 
used for both warp and filling, there is a possibility of having a few bobbins 
of filling spooled with the warp, causing a vast deal of trouble in the weav- 
ing and finishing departments. The looms should be provided with beams 
having extra large flanges, in this manner reducing the stoppage incident 
to putting in new warps, and also making a noticeable decrease in the 
waste from thrums and head ends. Burling and sewing should be carefully 
done, the pieces then being taken to the wet finishing department. 

Fulling should be done in the grease, if possible, not only to save time, 
but as a matter of economy in materials as well. Scoured fulling involves the 
use of more soap, and is not to be advised except in cases where absolutely 
necessary. The soap used should be a pure neutral base, as the necessary 
alkali can be added in the boiling tank at a much less price than that paid 
for soap. The best soap to use is one for the finisher and superintendent to 
decide. Some of our expert finishers refuse to use tallow soaps under any 
circumstances, while others think it impossible to 

Get the Best Results 

without at least a percentage of tallow soap in the fulling mixture. Apply 
the soap cold, leaving the door of the mill open until the soap has been 
taken up by the cloth, then close all doors, examining the goods from time 
to time to see that the work is progressing satisfactorily. Full to 56 inches 
in width, with 5 per cent shrinkage in length. This should give a firm, well- 
handling cloth. Scour for 30 to 40 minutes in warm water, rinse well, ex- 
tract and take to the napping machine. One or two light runs should give 
the nap required, and the pieces may then be dried. Shear off the long fi- 
bres, give a run on the steam brush and a moderate pressing. A fabric made 
In this manner will give excellent service in the garment. 

the plain mixture overcoating shown is made from the same stock and 



66 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

size of yarn as the novelty just described. The face is woven with the Mayo 
twill, the back with the regular four-harness, two-up-two-down twill. The 
greater weight is obtained by using a higher texture in both warp and fill- 
ing. Great care should be used in making the mixtures to avoid having them 
uneven in appearance in the finished goods. Manufacturing instructions are 
the same as for the fancy fabric. 



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CHAIN. DRAWING-IN DRAFT. 



FRIEZE 



This is a coarse, heavy woolen fabric used for ulsters, having an irregu- 
lar nap and a somewhat harsh handle. The name was originally given to a 
coarse fabric from Friesland, later applied to overcoating cloths manufac- 
ture in Ireland from the coarse native wools, the common designation of 
the fabric of late being "Irish Frieze." A few years ago a large percentage 
of the ulsters worn were made from cloths of this type, but at present the 
styles demand a cloth made from entirely different types of wool, with the 
majority of them manufactured from chinchillas or other long-napped fab- 
rics. The frieze, well made, is one of the best cloths ever produced for 
overcoating purposes, its construction, finish and the stock used making it 
practically repellant. 

Our type sample was made from a very coarse wool combined with a 
coarse extract and wool waste. While this may appear to the uninitiated to 
be rather illy-adapted for the production of a fabric intended to withstand 
considerable hard usage, the resulting fabric is one that is unusually good 
value for the price, and vail give the wearer most excellent service in the 
garment. In order to obtain the 

Greatest Possible Profit 

in manufacturing fabrics of this character, the mill should be equipped with 
the machinery to make its own shoddy. The goods are very heavy, shoddy 
being the chief constituent, and the folly of paying a shoddy manufacturer 
a profit on the major part of the stock used in the mill is readily apparent, 
particularly as the machinery installation required is comparatively inex- 
pensive. At the present time, rags may be purchased graded, ready for the 
picker. The machinery necessary consists of a shoddy picker, possibly two, 
a lumper and duster. The power required is comparatively little, nor would 
the pay roll be increased to a great extent. The rags should be laid out for 
picking in the same manner as a batch of wool. Successive layers are plac- 
ed on the floor and well oiled. Better results will be obtained if there is suf- 
ficient time allowed for the oil to thoroughly penetrate the stock before the 
picking operation is started. After picking, the stock should be run through 
the lumper and duster, which will remove the bits of cloth that have not 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



67 



been thoroughly converted into fibre by the picker. When laying out the 
batch for the mixing picker, the layers of stock should be so arranged that 
the emulsion used as a lubricant is applied to the wool. If the styles to be 
produced are solid colors for piece-dyeing, two runs through the mixing 
picker should be sufficient, but should it be desired to make a mixture with a 

Small Percentage of White 
or some other color, great care must be observed to have the mixture ho- 
mogeneous, and avoid the blotchy appearance sometimes found, due to in' 
sufficient blending in the picker room. 





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DRAFT. 
STRAIGHT DRAW. 




Warp and Filling: 

In all variations of mixtures, black, brown 

and blue, with small percentage of 

bleached white. 



Layout: 

1,600 ends, 24 picks. 

Reed: 5% — 4 — 72.72" between listing. 

Warp: 

1,600 thr., 1 run 16.00 oz. 

Filling: 

24 picks, 1 run 17.93 oz. 

2" for listing. 

33.93 oz. 
10% loom shrinkage 3.39 oz. 

Loom weight 37.32 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 

25% coarse grade wool @ 32c. = $ .0800 
60% c'rse grade shoddy @ 14c. = .0840 
15% wool waste @ 10c = .0150 

16) $ .1790 

An ounce % .0112 

37.32 oz. plus 15% shrinkage. 

Material: 

42.91 oz. @ $.0112 = % .4805 

Manufacturing : 

24 picks = -2260 

10% shrinkage of cloth = .0785 

Mill cost (per yard) $.7850 



34-Ounce Frieze. 



In carding, ordinary care should produce a roving that will give ex- 
cellent results on the mules, both in quality and quantity of production. The 
roving should be made about two-thirds draft for both warp and filling, spun 
to one run. Much greater production will be possible in the weave room if 



18 Woolen And worsted fabrics glossary 

a warp compressor is used in beaming from the dresser reel, and the filling 
is used in cop form. Burling and sewing are minor items, as the finish will 
not permit slight imperfections to show on the finished goods. The fulling 
will require the use of a full-bodied, long-lived soap, as the nature of the 
stock used will prevent rapid felting. It will probably be necessary to make 
a fulling soap of half palm oil and half tallow chips, built up with alkali to 
a strength that will readily saponify the grease content of the pieces. The 
goods should be run long enough to thoroughly absorb the soap before the 
traps are let down, as there is a possibility of overshrinking in -length be- 
fore they have come to the desired width. Full to 56 inches in width with 
10 per cent shrinkage in length. This should produce a fabric that will be 
boardy, yet pliable, and one that will tailor nicely. To cleanse the goods 
thoroughly they should have 30 to 40 minutes' treatment in the washer 
with warm water, then a rinsing, and another scouring in warm water with 
fresh soap, followed by a final rinsing in cold water. Extract and give a 
run or two on -he napper in both directions to secure a good cover. Dry, 
shear off the long hairs, brush, spray and press. Some of our best finishers 
are of the opinion that a better finish may be obtained by giving the pieces 
a few runs on the 

Napper Before Fulling, 
which is possibly true. The effect desired is not a straight, well-laid nap, but 
simply a felt that will obscure the weave. Napping before fulling raises the 
fibres, which are subsequently well-felted, into the face in a tangled mass 
by the action of the fulling mill. The weave here given is not used at all 
times, some of the higher-grade friezes being woven on the double -plain 
system. 



CARRIAGE ROBES 

These cloths, as the name implies, are used for carriage robes, blan- 
kets and coverings. A very important feature of fabrics for such use is 
fastness of color, as they are usually subject to very severe usage, ex- 




14 Ounces Finished, 54 Inches Between Listing. 



posure to sunlight, rain and all kinds of weather conditions. Strength is 
also a feature that must be considered in selecting the stocks and man- 
ufacturing the yarns. The sample selected for analysis is one of the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 6! 

cheaper grades, made from a mixture of wool, garnetted hard ends and 
waste. The better grades are usually composed of a mixture of wool and 
garnetted waste or entirely of wool. In the example at hand it would foe 
well to give the mixture at least three runs through the mixing picker to 
secure a thoroughly homogeneous blend. The carding of a mixture such as 
this is: an operation requiring the attention of a skilled overseer. Many mills 
engage their overseers on the principle that a cheap man is good enough 
for low stock, while in actual fact it requires skill of no mean order to make 
m good thread from inferior materials. Another great mistake that is very 
frequently made is to require the carder to use card clothing that is worn 
out and totally unfit for use, making for excuse the plea that the coarse 
stock does not require the carding that would be necessary for fine yarns. 
While there is an element of truth in this Contention, it is nevertheless 
a fact that it is impossible to secure the best results with inferior tools. L If 
the carder is expected to deliver to the spinning room roving that shall be 
capable of being spun into a sound, even thread, 

It is Absolutely Necessary 

that he be given card clothing that will perform the functions for which it is 
intended. Many of us have gone into the eard room and found workers, 
strippers and cylinders with spots as large as- the palm entirely denuded ^of 
clothing, to be met with the rather shamefaced statement that "they are 
only used on low-grade yarns." It surely needed no explanation to assure 
anyone that yarns made on such machinery would be low grade in more 
than one sense of the word. For the stock mixture used in our type of fab- 
ric it will not be necessary to use the regular quantity of oil (four quarts to 
the hundred), in the picker room, as the garnetted hard ends have received 
a considerable quantity of oil before the garnetting operation. The emul 
sion may be made up with two parts of water and one of oil as usual, but 
instead of the customary twelve quarts of emulsion to the hundred, use but 
eight, and apply the mixture to the wool. This may readily be accomplished 
by laying out the batch in this manner. A layer of garnetted waste, a layer 
of card waste and a layer of wool, making as many layers as may be neces- 
sary to put up the batch in the space at hand, and applying the emulsion to 
each layer of wool in as nearly equal portions as is possible. In the case at 
hand, in order to secure a thorough mixing of the small percentage of waste, 
it might be well to mix this with the wool and give a run through the picker 
before adding the garnetted stock. The carder must use good judgment in 
setting the various parts of the carding machines, and may find it necessary 
to change his speeds somewhat if the cards have been running on a finer 
grade of all-wool stock. One of the vital features of carding is the delivery 
of the greatest possible weight of well-made roving from each lot, and in 
order to accomplish this a good 

Knowledge of Stocks is Essential, 
and their action in the cards is a very important part of the carder's equip- 
ment. One of the common causes of nonsuccess in woolen manufacture in 
the past, and, sad to relate, not entirely unknown at the present day, was 
the excessive waste made in the various departments, particularly in the 
card room. - It is obvious to anyone that if the manager bases his yarn costs 
on an estimated production of 90 per cent of yarn from each lot, while the 
actual results show only 80 per cent or less, the calculated profits are very 
materially reduced, and if the same percentage of difference between es- 
timates and results prevailin other departments, the balance sheet will show 
a very substantial loss instead of the moderate profit assured by the es- 
timates. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that attention to details of 
this kind are absolutely necessary, if any measure of success is to crown 
the efforts of the management. The roving should be slightly over half- 



70 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



draft for the mules, and if well carded, will give excellent production as well 
as a round, strong thread. The twist may be a little more than normal for 
the size, as softness of fabric is not the aim. The dressing may be done on 
a dry frame, the yarns being of a size and strength that will insure 

Practically Perfect Weaving 
without the use of size. Burling and sewing should be practically negligible 
items on fabrics of this sort, as they should come from the looms with a 
minimum of imperfections. 

The fulling should not require much time, as it is not desired to felt the 
goods to any great extent, but to bring them out with a rather open, lofty 
finish. The majority of finishers prefer to full these fabrics in the grease, a 
saving of considerable time, and a method of procedure that should give 
very satisfactory results. When fulled to the desired width, wash, dry and 
give only sufficient shearing to even up the nap, then brush and press. 





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Layout: Q ,' 

2,160 ends. 38 picks. 
Reed: 8 — 4—67.50 inches between the listing. 

Warp: 
2,160 thr., 3^4 run = 6.65 oz. 

Filling: 

38 picks, 3% run = 7.05 oz. 

2 inches for listing. ■ 

13.70 oz. 
Loom shrinkage, 10% 1.37 " 

Loom weight 15.07 oz. 



DRESSED AND WOVEN. 



4 blue. 
20 white. 

4 orange. 
20 white. 

48 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 
50% med. grade wool @ 40c. lb. .. = f .2000 
40% med. grade garnet @ 20c. lb. = .0800 
10% med. grade wh. waste @ 12c. lb.= .0120 

1« )S .2920 

An ounce $.01823 

Cost: 

15.07 plus 15% _ 

17.33 oz. @ 1.70c. " ' ■•'• * 

Manufacturing: 38 picks = $ .2830 

Mill cost, a yard $ .5993 



HEAVY-WEIGHT AUTOMOBILE CLOAKING 

The constantly increasing use of the automobile as an all-the -year- 
round mode of conveyance has been the cause of no little activity in the 
carded woolen industry. During the extremely severe weather fur coats are 
very largely worn, but by many auto enthusiasts the use of a heavy woolen 
garment is preferred. The most popular fabric for garments of this char- 
acter is the heavy, fancy-backed cloaking similar in construction to the type 
of sample here described and illustrated. Many of our woolen mills have 
operated their entire equipment in the production of these cloths for some 
time, and have found them to be very satisfactory profit makers. The wools 
used in many of these fabrics have been of extremely low grades, and would 
be classed as carpet wools by those who have been accustomed to work on 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 71 

the finer grades of men's wear woolens. Cloths similar to that illustrated 
are usually produced from foreign wools, such as Jorias and Chinas, the 
latter being particularly adapted for the manufacture of many styles in 
which the large percentage of kemp to be found in these wools gives an 
appearance which is well-nigh impossible to duplicate by the use of any 
other stock. As stated in the article on double-faced cloakings, it is cus- 
tomary to so 

Unite the Back and Face 

fabrics in weaving that they may be readily separated by the garment maker 
if he so desires. This is accomplished by the use of an extra binder warp, 




29-Ounce Automobile Cloaking. 

which has no other function than that of uniting the two cloths. Were this 
omitted and the weaving carried on in exactly the same manner, the re- 
sult would be two pieces of cloth, each perfect, and entirely separate from 
one another. It may be asked why it is not customary to weave fabrics in 
this manner, as it would appear that weaving two pieces of cloth at one 
time on the same loom would make a considerable, saving over the method 
now in use. The fallacy of this reasoning becomes readily apparent when 
we consider that, although the two fabrics are woven at the same instant, 
the time necessary to produce them on one loom is no less, and in actual 
practice probably more than would be required to weave them on two 
looms. The further possibility of a greater number of imperfections, ow- 
ing to the fact that the operative could see but one of the cloths, would also 
militate very strongly against such procedure. 

The agitation relative to the use of cotton in woolen fabrics has been 
carried to such an extent that many garment manufacturers^ refuse to^buy 



72 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

any cloths containing this extremely useful fibre. The aim of these mis- 
guided enthusiasts is very laudable, the prevention of misrepresentation and 

Improvement of Textiles, 
but the results of their propaganda has been in many instances the direct 
opposite. As before stated, the function of the cotton binder warp is sim- 
ply to stitch the back and face cloth together, showing neither on race nor 
back of the fabric. The use of a cotton thread for this purpose in no way 
depreciates the value of the cloth as an article of apparel and serves its 
purpose as well, or even better, than a woolen or worsted thread, yet buy- 
ers would condemn it as containing cotton. For that reason, the greater 
part of the plaid backs are stitched with a worsted binder. 

In the manufacture of these fabrics, the wool to be used for the white 
yarns should be bleached, and also the white in the mixture. For the bleach- 
ing, select stock that is of good color, free from stains and yellow tips. The 
method to be used in the bleaching will depend to a great extent on the 
facilities at hand. In the ordinary woolen mill it is extremely probable that 
no special apparatus will be found, and in that case a 

Clean Dye- Kettle 
may be used. The bath may be prepared with 4 gallons of sodium bisulphite, 
71-77 degrees Twaddell, or 2iy 2 pounds sodium bisulphite and 3 gallons of 
water, 2y 2 pints sulphuric acid and 500 gallons of water. The 
wool must be thoroughly washed before entering the bleaching bath. Work 
well, so as to secure perfect penetration of the entire mass, and allow it 
to remain in the liquor overnight if possible. Draw off, extract and dry. 
This method will give excellent results, leaving the wool in Al condition for 
subsequent operations. 

Care must be taken in the preparatory processes or results in the card- 
ing and spinning rooms will be far from satisfactory. The roving must 
come from the card room clear and free from twits, thus enabling the 
spinner to produce a round, even thread. The twist in spinning should be 
slightly under rather than over normal, as the desired result is a soft, full 
thread. This does not imply, however, that the twist should be so reduced 
as to affect adversely the weaving qualities of the yarn. A very decided 
aid in the weave room, when using coarse yarns for filling, is the use of 
cop shuttles, which permit of placing a much larger supply of filling in 
each shuttle than is possible when the ordinary type of spindle shuttle is . 
used and the filling woven direct from the mule bobbins. It will also be 
found advantageous to build the warp chain reversed, that is, risers for 
sinkers and vice versa, throwing the back of the cloth on the top while 
weaving, so that imperfections may be more readily seen and remedied by 
the weaver. It will be noticed that the fabric is laid much narrower in the 
loom than is customary with the majority of wool goods, but as explained 
in a former article, this has for its object the prevention of a very common 
defect in goods of this character,, that is, the showing of .the back pattern 
on the face of the fabric. When burled and sewed, full in the grease, using 
a pure, full-bodied soap with sufficient alkali to freely saponify the grease 
and maintain its vitality through the fulling and scouring processes. With 
a soap of sufficient detergent properties, there should be no necessity for 
an additional supply during the scouring, but should there be any doubt as 
to the 

Thorough Cleansing of the Pieces, 
they should be well rinsed and new soap be added with warm water. No 
napping will be required. The pieces should be extracted and dried, with 
no unnecessary delay, after leaving the washer. The dry finishing consists 
merely Of a light shearing, brushing, a run on the dewing machine and 
pressing. The final examination should be in charge of thoroughly compe- 
tent help* and any defetots due to carelessness in the varictas d«pattm<efntis 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



7* 



called to the attention of the proper authorities, so that they may be pre- 
vented in the future. 

Manufacturing Particulars. 

1 



Dressing: 

Light face [[ 1 

Dark back ... 
Light back ... 
Cotton binder 



12 
6 
6 
2 
i — 



1,008 


6.72 ounce. 


504 


3.36 " 


504 


3,36 " 


168 


0.32 " 



3 times. 3 times. 



Woven: 
Dark mix face. 
Dark back .. .. 
Light back .. .. 



II 1 I . II 1 I. . II 12 1,176 7.84 our 

I . 1 . . 6 588 3.92 " 

. . I . 1 6 588 3.92 " 



3 times. 26 X 84 = 2,184 13.76 ounce, 
7.84 ounce. 



6 times. 6 times. 24 2,352 



Layout: ' 
2,184 ends, 34 picks. 
Reed: 7%— 4, 5, 4 = 67.20/ 



between listing. 



15.68 ounce. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Material : 
75% coarse grade wool @ 32c 



Warp: 

2,016 thr., 1% run 

168 thr., 2/20 cotton. 



Filling: 
34 picks, 1% run..... ...... 

Allow 2 inches for listing. 



10% loom shrinkage. 
Loom weight 



25% coarse grade shoddy @ 14c. 



= f .2400 
= $ .0350 



13.44 oz. 
00.32 ■* 



29.44 oz. 
2.94 " 



32.38 oz. 



16) % .2750 
\ n ounce $ .0172 

Wool: 32.03 plus 15% = 36.86 oz. 

Cotton: 00.35 plus 15%.. <= 00.40 " 

Cost: 

36.83 ounce wool @ 1.72c...... = $ .6334 

00.40 ounce cotton <g> lc. = .0040 

Manufacturing:. 

34 picks = .2670 



Mill cost, 
DRAFT. 



a yard. 



$ .9044 



*e*C ' 



£.: 



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2 times. 

WEAVE. 

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BCBDDDDnDDBDD 
BBBBBOBOBOBBQ 

BDBDBran DDna 

BBBBBBBaBDBaB 
DDBnBDBDnDDDa 
■OIMIIIIOI I 

DUUDB B BQDOB 
BOB BBBBBBBDB 

DnannnBDBr bod 



2 times. 



DRAW. 



2 times. 



2 times. 



74 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



LADIES' DOUBLE-FACE CLOAKING 

The popularity of the coarse twilled fabrics similar to that here illus- 
trated is apparently on the wane for the moment, the vogue at the pres- 
ent time tending very strongly toward the imitation fur and boucle" effects. 
It is not at all probable, however, that such fabrics will entirely take the 
place of the twilled coating for any extended period. The richness of 
coloring, the tasteful mixes which so enhance the beauty of any garment, 




20-Ounce Ladies' Cloaking. 



particularly those intended for women's wear, can only be developed in 
fabrics which do not primarily rely on looped effects to give them charac- 
ter and distinction. One of the most pleasing effects in this type of fabric, 
is developed by means of using two strongly contrasting colors in both 
warp and filling, for the face, with either a plain or a fancy back. The 
oack may be of colors which blend with the face or may be a decided con- 
'rast, but due care must be observed not to use shades which will offend 
-he eye. The object in making 

Double- Faced Fabrics 
is primarily to obtain a cloth of considerable weight and warmth that shall 
have the appearance of a lined garment when made up. The relatively 
lower cost of making up a coat from a fabric of this type and that of 
producing a coat from two cloths, the shell and the lining, is apparent to 
anyone and need not be commented on at this time. An objection to many 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 75 

of the double-faced fabrics produced in former times was the fact that back 
and face were so thoroughly united in the weaving as to render it a mat- 
ter of difficulty to separate them for the purpose of turning the lapels 
and pocket trimmings, while if the cloth was used without splitting the 
effect was very clumsy and unsatisfactory. 

Another difficulty frequently encountered, particularly in the manufac- 
ture of fabrics with strongly emphasized color patterns on the back, was 
that the fancy effect on the back not infrequently was quite 

Distinctly Visible on the Face. 
It is extremely probable that some of our readers have had experiences of 
this sort, and if they are finishers or dyers they will no doubt remember very 
well what efforts each made to assure the superintendent that the trouble 
did not originate in his department. It is not at all improbable that both 
were absolutely right in their assertions of innocence, as in many instances, 
when traced to its real cause, it would be found that the source of the dif- 
ficulty lay in the stocks used. In many cases the dyer would be accused 
of putting along colors that were not fast, or the finisher would be taken to 
task for giving the pieces improper treatment either in the fulling mills or 
washer, while, in fact, each was obtaining the best possible results from 
the materials at hand. The cause of the trouble was not that the face of 
the fabric was stained by dyestuff from the back, but that the proper selec- 
tion of stock was not used for the two cloths. Imperfections of this sort 
are much more likely to occur when making goods with a fine face and 
relatively coarser stock for the back. If the goods are laid wide in the 
loom so as to require considerable fulling to bring them to the required 
width, the coarse fibres from the back will frequently work into or through 
the face fabric, giving the appearance of a stain or print. This may be over- 
come by 

Changing the Construction 
somewhat so as to require less fulling, or by using stocks for both face and 
back which have practically the same felting properties. In the sample 
analyzed, the stock mixture averages 75 per cent medium wool and 25 per 
cent shoddy, but frequently the colors which it is desired to use will make 
a considerable change of percentages necessary. This is more particularly 
the case if the back is a fancy pattern. In figuring the cost of the line it 
will be necessary to use exceptionally good judgment, as in case the 
prices are based on the average cost of the mixtures, it may be found that 
the major part of the orders taken are for the styles containing the most 
expensive stock. A feature that will need particular attention is evenness 
of the yarn in both warp and filling. In the style illustrated this may not 
be so essential, but frequently, the most freely selling styles in the range 
are those having a 

Light Warp and Dark Filling. 
These are difficult to produce in any grade, even with the best of machinery 
equipment, and in the ordinary cassimere mill, where discipline has become 
somewhat lax and machinery is not in the best of condition, it is not at 
all unlikely that a larger proportion of seconds will be made than should 
be tolerated. It will be neccessary to watch the weight of the roving very 
carefully, keep the tops and bottoms separate, not only in the spinning but 
also in the weave room. If the carder has not been accustomed to working 
on the class of stock used in these cloths he may find trouble in keeping 



7(5 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



his weights correct, as the top rings are prone to take more than their share 
of the stock from the cylinder. Then, too, the side ends may become heavy 
or light, a very frequent cause of uneven yarn. The weave room is often 
given the credit for producing uneven cloths when the trouble is in the 
yarn manufacture, though too often the carelessness of the weavers in 
changing all the shuttles at one time, or in starting up after a pick out, 
causes a "heavy place" which shows as a dark streak across the piece. 
Imperfections of this sort are perhaps more 

Difficult to Overcome 
on goods which take the picks easily than on fabrics which require some 
force to beat them home. Burling and sewing are not difficult operations 
on these cloths, as the looseness of the weave permits of removing knots 
and slugs with comparatively little effort and the relatively coarse, strong 
yarn weaves with a slight amount of breakage. Fulling is usually done 
in the grease, and should be accomplished in as short a time as is consistent 
with good work, there being much less danger of the back showing through 
on the face. Full to 58 inches and transfer immediately to the washer. 
GiVe half an hour's scouring with lukewarm, not hot, water, then rinse 
thoroughly and dry. The face will require no napping, the back may or 
may not require such treatment, depending on the type of finish desired. 
Should a napped finish be required, the raising should be done before the 
goods are dried, as it may be accomplished while the pieces are wet 
with greater ease and much less waste of material. Give a light shearing 
to remove the long hairs, brush and press. 



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Warp: 

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Back 1 

Light face 

Back 

Filling: 

Dark face 1 

Back 1 

Light face 

Back 



STRAIGHT DRAW. 



Layout: 

2,048 ends, 36 picks. 

iveed: V& — 4— 68" between listing. 

"Warp: 

1,024 thr., 2V* run face 4.55 oz. 

1,024 thr., 2% run back 4.55 " 

Tilling: 

18 picks, 2% run face 5.60 " 

18 picks, '2% run back 5.60 " 

2 inches for listing. 20.30 oz. 

10% shrinkage 1 2.03 " 

Loom weight ..,....,., ,..,,22,53 ©s. 



COST CALCULATION. 

75% med. wool @ 44c = % -3300 

25% med. shoddy @ 20c = -0500 

16) $ .3800 

$ .0237 
Material: 
22.33 plus 15%. „ „„„„ 

25.07 oz. @ .0237c = $.6083 

36 picks = - 2750 

Mill cost $ -S 833 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



77 



IMITATIOM ASTRACHAN 



The astrachan is a lustrous, curly black fur obtained from the young 
lambs indigenous to parts of Russia and Persia. Its extreme beauty and 
high cost has been the cause of many attempts to imitate it in textiles. 
The inventive genius of the present generation has succeeded so well, that 
at the present time there are many textile fabrics, knit or woven, that 




Imitation Astrachan. 



imitate it so closely that a close scrutiny is necessary to determine which is 
the fur and which the imitation. Many of the closer imitations are woven 
by means of wires, which raise the luster yarn in loops something after 
the manner in which Brussels carpets are woven, wbile others depend en- 
tirely on 

The Fulling Mill 
for the desired effect. The fabric here illustrated and described is of the 
latter class. The warp is made from a mixture of wool, shoddy and waste 
and is comparatively inexpensive. The filling, which gives the characteristic 
appearance to the cloth, is made of a fine grade of mohair. Mohair, some- 
times called Angora wool, is the fleece of the Angora goat, a native of west- 
ern Asia, but now domesticated in many countries. The principal source of 
supply is Turkey, and from that country comes the finest mohair obtain- 



78 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

able. For many years past, there have been some large flocks of Angora 
goats kept in Texas, and these are the source of almost the entire domestic 
clip. Lack of care, climatic conditions, or possibly lack of attention to 
breeding may be responsible for the fact that the domestic mohair is not 
equal to that obtained from abroad. 

The peculiarly brilliant luster of the mohair fibre renders it particularly 
valuable as a material from which fabrics may be constructed in imitation 
of furs, and modern inventions of appliances for looms and twisters have 
made it possible to produce fabrics which, in the hands of the skilled finisher, 
imitate nature very closely. New types of finishing machinery have been 
developed whereby the peculiar curl to be found in the furs of certain 
animals are reproduced with an exactness that is truly wonderful. Soma 
years ago mohair was used to a certain extent for the production of linings 
and dress goods, with a little used in men's wear for decorative purposes, 
the largest users of the fibre being the manufacturers of 

Plushes and Robes. 
In the recent past a large quantity has gone into cloakings of various kinds. 
The warp is prepared in the ordinary way, and dressed dry. The filling 
is made from a fairly long staple mohair of good grade. Care should be 
taken in the carding to preserve the length of the staple as much as possible. 
Do not set closer than is absolutely required to produce a smooth, e\ en 
roving, which should be a trifle over half draft. Watch the drawing on 
the mule, changing the draft and weight of roving if necessary until the 
desired effect is obtained, which is to produce a thread approximating the 
appearance of worsted as nearly as possible. The mohair yarn should be 
spooled for twisting, an operation that may be performed either on the 
ordinary type of ring twister, or, if the spinning equipment will permit, 
may be accomplished on the mule. If the latter method is used the yarn 
delivery will need to be approximately full draft. The twist required will 
be but five or six turns to the inch. The necessity for twisting may be 
questioned by manufacturers accustomed to using a 

Bradford Roving for Filling, 

but to one conversant with both types of yarn the advantages of 
twisting the wool spun thread will be obvious. A single thread made on 
the woolen system would produce an effect much more in the nature of the 
so-called "wool plush," while the ply thread will form the loop effect which 
gives the characteristic finish to astrachans. 

In weaving, do not use more tension in the shuttle than is needed to pre- 
vent the filling drawing in, as the desired effect is to have the filling form 
loops on the face of the fabric when finished, and this is aided to a con- 
siderable degree if the filling is woven a trifle slack. Burling and sewing 
are negligible items in the manufacture of astrachans, as the heavy loops on 
the face of the goods effectually cover up any ordinary imperfections that 
may occur during the weaving. The most difficult processes connected with 
the production of such cloths as the one here described are the fulling and 
dyeing. Unless great care is used in both these processes failure will follow. 
In making piece-dyed effects the pieces should be scoured and colored be- 
fore fulling. Avoid crowding either the washer or the dye-kettle, as the 
drag on the pieces, due to the crowding, may stretch them in length and 
cause them to ppcom^ narrow without forming the filling loops which are 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



n 



characteristic of the fabric. It may be necessary to remove the pot eyes 
in the washer and to slow up the reel of the dye-tub to get satisfactory 
results. After coloring they should be well extracted and dried, then put 

Through the Soaping Machine 
and run into the fulling mills. Examine them from time to time to see that, 
mill wrinkles are not made, a common defect in fabrics of this character, 
and also to make sure that they are fulling evenly. Full to 56 inches, scour, 
extract and dry. A light shearing to remove the long hair will put them in 
condition for the press. 



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28 bars, 16 harnesses. 

Use straps or extra harnesses for listing. 

Warp dressed: Plain black. 

Woven: 1 pick wool and 1 pick mohair. 

Layout: 

1,824 ends, 32 picks. 

Reed: 6 — 4 — 76" between listing. 

Warp: 

1,824 thr., 2 run 



Filling: 

16 picks, 1 % run wool 

16 picks 3-ply mohair, 1 run. 



10% loom shrinkage. 
Loom weight 



= 


9.12 


oz. 


= 


8.32 
12.48 


oz. 

oz. 


= 


29.92 
2.99 


oz. 
oz. 




32.91 


oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material, wool, warp and filling: 



50% coarse grade wool @ 36c... = % .1800 

40% coarse grade shoddy @ 16c. = .0640 

10% wool waste @ 12c = .0120 

16) % .2560 



An ounce % .0160 

Mohair filling:- 

Fine grade @56c. = 3%c. an ounce. 
Stock: 

17 44 + 25% = 21.89 oz. @ $.0160 = $.3488 

12.48 + 25% = 15.60 oz. @ $.0350 = .5460 
Manufacturing : 

32 picks = .2590 



STRAIGHT DRAW. 



Mill cost $1.1538 



WOOL CRASH 



The term "crash" as applied to woolen fabrics is a misnomer, as the 
true crash is cloth manufactured from flax. This designation was applied to 
a certain type of woolens from a fancied resemblance to the rough, unfin- 
ished appearance of the fabric from which it was named. The typical wool 
crash is a fabric made from rather low-grade wool, the yarns well twisted, 
with a somewhat rough, harsh handle. The yarns should be even in weight, 



80 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

but smoothness is not especially to be desired, in fact smooth yarns detract 
materially from the characteristic appearance of the fabric. 

An extremely satisfactory stock mixture for fabrics of this type may 
be made with a percentage of rather short, nibby silk noils carded with the 




Fine 12£ Ounce Crash, 

wool, as the roughness of the yarn, due to the imperfect carding of the noil, 
will assist in giving the desired appearance to the finished fabric. The col- 
orings which have met with the greatest favor at the hands of buyers have 
been made with mixtures containing the following percentages: 

CRASH.— MIXTURES IN DEMAND. 
95 0/0 white and 5 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan. 65 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan and 35 0/0 white. 
90 0/0 white and 10 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan.80 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan and 20 0/0 white. 
80 0/0 white and 20 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan. 90 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan and 10 0/0 white. 
65 0/0 white and 35 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan. 95 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan and 5 0/0 white. 
B0 0/0 white and 50 0/0 black, brown, blue or tan. 

It is important that the stock be thoroughly mixed in the picking, so 
as to insure evenness of color in the mixture, otherwise the finished fabric 
will have a decidedly blotchy appearance. Especial care must be taken in 
the weave room to see that the picks per inch are not varied, particularly 
on styles requiring the use of light warps and dark filling, as every heavy 
or light place will be plainly visible in the finished goods, and will necessi- 
tate an allowance. The production of this class of fabrics should not be 
undertaken unless the help have been 

Carefully Trained 
to keep the picks even, and to make a start up after picking out that will 
not show in the form of a streak across the cloth. Many overseers of weav- 
ing will not attempt to weave warps of this kind except on looms with a 
positive take-up, claiming that danger of imperfections is very much re- 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



81 



duced by so doing, while others just as stoutly maintain that a careful weav- 
er can produce better results with the take-up working conditionally. In 
either case the human equation enters very largely into the results obtain- 
ed. Burling and sewing should be small items in the production cost of 
crashes, as the yarns if well made should weave with a minimum of break- 




15|/2-Ounce Crash. 

age. More trouble is to be anticipated in the weave room, probably, from 
knots slipping, owing to the slippery nature of the stock than from actual 
breakage of the yarn. This difficulty may be very largely overcome by care- 
ful attention to the method of tying the ends employed by the spoolers. 
The fabrics should not be laid wide enough in the loom to 

Require Much Fulling, 
as to obtain the desired finish the structure of the thread should not be 
broken up to any extent. The fulling is usually done in the grease, and 
scouring should immediately follow, no additional soap being required if 



DIRECTION OK LAYOUT FOR 12% OZ. FIN- 
ISHED CRASH. 
1,920 ends, 30 picks per inch. 
Reed number: 14-2 in dent— 68. 40 inches be- 
tween listing. 

Warp: 1,920 ends, 3% run 5.90 ounce 

Filling: 30 picks, 3% run 6.80 " 

12.70 " 
10% loom shrinkage 1.27 " 

Equal loom 13.»7 " 



COST CALCULATION. 
13.97 ounce material plus 15% shrinkage. 
13.97 ounce. 
2.09 " 

16.06 ounce material. 
Price of wool: 40 cents a pound, 
or 2V£ cents an ounce. 

16.06 material @ 2%c 

Manufacturing: 30 picks 



$ .4415 
.2500 



Cost per yard to the mill.... 
STRAIGHT DRAW. 
Weave plain on eight-harness to 
too many heddles on one harness. 



$ .6915 



82 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



that used in fulling has been properly made. Care must be taken, however, 
to thoroughly remove the dirt, and all traces of soap must be eradicated. 
After drying, brush, shear and press. 



SECOND GRADE OF CRASH. 

Made of medium grade of wool, 15 to 16 

ounce finished. 
1,080 ends, 18 picks; reed 8 — 2 — 67 Vz inches 

between the list; 6/4 finished. 
Warp: 1,080 ends, 1V 2 run... 7 20/100 ounce 
Filling: 18 picks, iy 2 run... 8 34/100 



15 55/100 
10% shrinkage 1 55/100 



Equal loom weight 17.1 " 

COST CALCULATION. 
Medium, wool: 40c. lb. or 2%c. oz. 
Material: 17.1 oz. -4- 10% shrink- 
age = 18.8 oz. 

18.8 oz. @ 2%c = 47c. 

Manufacturing: 18 picks = 20.3c. 



Mill cost 67.3c. 

Woven on 4-harness straight draw. 



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12 Ounce Nub Cloaking Crash. 



THIRD GRADE OF CRASH WITH NUBS. 



>esign. 



Lady's spring cloak: 11% to 12 ounce; use medium grade of wool, and 25% Kandahar. 

600 ends 10 picks reed 8%— 1— 70" 6-4. 



Warp and filling: % draft hard twist. 
BETWEEN THE LISTING. 

Warp: 600 ends 1 run 6 ounce 

Filling: 10 picks 1 run 7.2 " 

13.2 " 
10% shrinkage 1.3 " 

Equal loom weight 14% " 

Cost: 75% medium wool, 40c... = $ .3000 



25% Kandahar, 32c — s* 



$ .3800 
.0800 



16)* .3800(* .02- 
32 



375 



Material: 16 ounces @ 2%c. 
Manufacturing: 12 picks.... 



Mill cost 



$ .400 
.135 



$ .536 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 83 

JUVENILE SUITS AND TROUSERS 

There are a number of mills making a specialty of fabrics for the ju- 
venile trade, the styles used for children's suits not being adapted to men's 
wear, nor are the styles and fabrics in the men's wear line usually such as 
appeal to makers of clothing for children. In general, it may be said that 
fabrics for the juvenile trade are made from coarser wools and heavier 
yarns than the cloths in demand by their elders. The fabrics here described 
are typical, both in style and construction, meeting with a ready sale and 
showing a satisfactory profit to the manufacturer. The fabrics are usually 
of rather low texture, both warp and filling, with but little fulling and fin- 
ished fairly close. The styles in demand vary from year to year, as do 
those in other divisions of the market, but there are not the great differ- 







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FANCY DRAW. 

Warp : 

In light mixes. 
Stripe with silk threads. 
Filling: 
Dark solid color or mixtures. 




12-Ounce Juvenile Suiting. 



ences either in style or construction that are to be found in men's wear. 
They are made in a wide range of colorings, with decorations of various 
kinds. In recent seasons, stripes of different widths have been popular, one 
of the most favored decorations being a few threads of silk noil yarn in 
white or colors. Some time ago the plain mixture effects were leaders, 
while another season's best sellers may be the so-called "nub crash," a fab- 
ric woven with a plain weave from yarns containing wool nubs. The fabrics 
illustrated are made from a stock mixture of 50 per cent medium-grade wool, 
40 per cent medium-grade shoddy and 10 per cent waste. This stock mix- 
ture spun to the size required, (3i£ run), should produce a strong, smooth 
yarn that will give an excellent production in the weave room, with satis- 
factory results in finishing. There is much less opportunity for the designer 
to display his ability in weave combination on fabrics of this character than 
would be the cane were dress goods the product of the mill. The opportuni- 
ties offered here are those pertaining to the manipulation of stocks and the 
tasteful blending of colors in producing a range of mixtures that shall be at 
the same time harmonious and distinctive. In order to produce colors that 



84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



are bright and clear it is absolutely essential that the wools be carefully 
scoured, free from the natural grease or smut that envelops the fibre in its 
original state. Unless this is entirely removed in the scouring, subsequent 
operations are performed with difficulty. The dyer will find it absolutely 
impossible to secure clear, bright shades on dirty wool, the carding will re- 













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suit in twitty yarn, while the cards themselves will be filled with a sticky 
mass of 

Combined Grease and Short Fibre, 
which will make life a burden to the strippers, and cause the overseer to 
wonder why he ever was so senseless as to learn that particular branch of 
the business. The great importance of the scouring process seems to be 
entirely lost sight of, if we are to believe the evidence of our eyes and sense 
of touch. The scourer, in some instances, seems to think that removing the 





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FANCY DRAW. 

Wan; 

Light mixes for stripes 
with double and twist 
silk noil and black 12 
turns to one inch. 




12-Ounce Juvenile Panting. 



larger portion of the impurities from the wool is all that is required, and 
unless watched carefully is apt to slight the work, particularly if the old 
soakiD^ tub and rinse box are used. Possibly this is not to be wondered at, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



85 



as in many cases the operative is poorly paid, speaks but little English, if 
any, and has not the slightest idea of the extreme importance of the work 
in which he is engaged. The temptation to slight the work is not as great 
in mills where mechanical wool washers are used, but the installation of 
modern machinery is not all that is required in order to obtain satisfactory 
results. The detergents used must be pure, and above all, suited to the par- 
ticular type of wool to be cleansed. The scouring bath that will give excel- 
lent results on one grade of wool may be altogether unfitted for use on an- 
other grade. The liquor must be changed to conform with the 

Requirements of the Stock 

to be cleansed. One of the most frequent causes of injury to the stock in 
the scouring is excessive heat, making the wool harsh and brittle. The 
scouring bath should under no circumstances be allowed to become warmer 
than 120 to 130 degrees Fahrenheit, a higher temperature than this being 
very harmful to the fibre. Drying wool would appear to be an operation so 
extremely simple that one could not possibly make any mistake there. That 
great injury may be done the stock during drying has been proven in- 
numerous times in the experience of nearly all mill managers. The best 
method as yet devised for drying wool is the cold air system. This requires 
more time and a larger equipment of drying tables than many mills have 
room for, but the superior results obtained justify the use of the system 
wherever at all practicable. The installation required consists of racks cov- 
ered with wire netting to hold the wool, the bottom part boxed in as nearly 
air tight as possible and connected with a 

Powerful Fan, 
which forces air up through the layer of wool on the screen, or exhausts 
the air from underneath, in this way inducing a current of air down through 



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the wool. The former method is the most approved, as it leaves the wool in 
a more lofty, open condition. Fabrics of this type are invariably stock-dyed, 
as few or practically no juveniles are made in solid colors. The dyer should 
use discretion in boiling the stock for coloring, as severe boiling felts the 
stock and makes it both tender and brittle, causing a great amount of waste 
in subsequent operations, particularly in the carding. See that the stocks 
are thoroughly blended in the picker room and have sufficient oil to insure 
thorough lubrication during the carding and spinning. The carding of stock 
such as is used in the type samples should present no difficulty if the stocks 
have been carefully handled in the preparatory processes. The roving should 
be made two-thirds draft, spun right twist, forming a smooth, round thread 
that will be strong and elastic. No splicing should be allowed in spinning; 
all broken ends must be tied to insure good weaving. The spoolers should 
be taught to tie a knot that will not slip on the dresser or in the loom. Pro- 
duction will be greatly increased if attention is paid to these seemingly un- 
important details, and much valuable time will be saved in the finishing 
room. Weaving will be a pleasure with well-made warp and filling, and the 
looms should easily attain a production equal to SO per cent of the theoreti- 
cal possibility. This may seem rather more than should be expected with 



86 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

warp and filling of the stock and size described, but mill experience in many 
cases has proven this to be a very conservative estimate. Burling must be 
well done, the knots carefully raised, slugs and foreign matter removed so 
far as possible. There should be practically no sewing required, except pos- 
sibly a broken pick occasionally, as the warp should be strong enough to 
weave with a minimum of breakage. ■ Run tbe pieces into the mills two on 
each side, start the mills and apply the soap 

In a Semiliquid State, 
just warm enough to flow through a two-inch spout which has been attach- 
ed to an ordinary watering can. Open the top of the mill and apply the 
soap just as the pieces enter the rolls. This will secure an even distribu- 
tion of the soap, if no soaping machine is at hand. These goods require no 
felt and should be brought out as quickly as possible, placed in the washer 
without unnecessary delay, and thoroughly scoured with warm water. Half 
an hour's scouring should float the grease and dirt, so that it may be rinsed 
out without trouble. Should there be any doubt as to the absolute cleans- 
ing of the goods, give another scour with fresh soap, as dirty goods are one 
of the most unfortunate things that can occur, and usually inexcusable. Ex- 
tract and dry, shear fairly close, brush, spray and press. 



Layout: 

4040 ends. 30 picks. 

Reed: 7^ — 4—68 inches between 
Warp: 


listing. 


COST CALCULATION. 

40% medium grade shoddy @ 20c.... 
10% medium grade wool waste @ 12c. 

Material: 
13.01 plus 15%. 


xs $ .2200 
= .0800 
= .0120 


Filling: 




16 ) * .3120 


Allow 2 inches for listing. 






11.83 oz. 
1.18 oz. 






13.01 oz. 


— $ .2917 




Manufacturing: 


= .2500 










% .5417 



HOMESPUN 



Fabrics of this kind are usually made from a medium grade of wool, to 
imitate as closely as possible the product of the old spinning wheel and 
hand loom. The wools from which these are made should be of fairly long 
staple, thoroughly scoured, and free from all vegetable matter. In the card 
room it may be necessary for the carder to change his speed and to vary 
the setting of the various parts of the card, and in this way he will be able 
to imitate quite closely the rough thread as spun by hand. The roving should 
be made so as to allow half draft on the mule, which will give a strong round 
thread, insuring excellent results in the weave room in the way of produc- 
tion, with a minimum of work in the sewing department. Many of the most 
popular of these cloths are made with a white warp and a dark filling, 
which is an extremely difficult pattern to produce perfectly. Every effort 
should be made to see that the beams are perfectly true, that the whip roll 
revolves easily in its sockets, and that the take-up is in perfect working or- 
der. Many loom fixers are of the opinion that better results can be obtain- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 8? 

ed by the use of the old-style conditional take-up on work of this kind, but 
in most cases it will be found that the use of the positive take-up either of 
the ratchet ring or the worm gear type will 

Produce Better Results. 
When the warp is ready to be put in the loom, new friction bands should be 
placed on the beam heads, which have been well sprinkled with powdered 
graphite. Attention to these details will do much toward producing perfect 
cloth. Burling and sewing on fabrics of this kind should be very inexpensive 




10-Ounce Homespun. 

items. With well-made yarns the warp should run practically day in and 
day out, without any breaking. From the sewing room the goods should be 
taken to the wet finishing. 

On goods of this type and weight it is absolutely essential that a soaping 
machine should be used. Without this, it is practically impossible to se- 
cure an even distribution of the soap, and unless every part of the piece is 
soaped evenly, uneven fulling will be the result. Full to 54 inches, which 
should not take more than 30 minutes, transfer immediately to washer, scour 



88 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



thoroughly, and dry as soon as possible. Brush and shear lightly, simplj 
removing the long hairs, give a light steaming, and press. 

Weave very even so that the twill may 
show perfectly clear. 
jLayout: 

2,160 ends. 40 picks. 

Reed 8 — 1—68 inches between listing. 
Warp: 

2,176 thr., 5 run = 4.35 oz. 

Filling: 

40 picks, 5 run = 5.52 oz. 



10% shrinkage. 



9.87 oz. 
.98 oz. 



Loom weight 10.86 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Medium wool 40 cent = 2%c. oz. 
13 ounce material with 15% shrinkage = $ .2121 
Manufacturing: 

40 picks at 9 mills = .36 

Mill cost, a yard =$.5721 

14 TO 15 OUNCE HOMESPUN. 

2,176 ends, 40 picks, reed 8 — i — 68 inches between 

listing. 
Warp: 

2,160 thr.. 3% run 6.20 oz. 

Filling: 

40 picks, 3& run 7.9 oz. 

14.10 oz. 
1.41 " 



Shrinkage, 10% 



.Squal loom weight 15.51 oz. 







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Full Draft. 



COST. 

40 @ lb. medium wool = 2%c. 
15% shrinkage = L783 oz. @ 
Manufacturing." 

40 picks 



!%c. 



Mill cost, a yard. 



$ .4457 

.2910 

$ .7867 



ULSTER OR OVERCOATING CLOTH 

The fabric here illustrated is made from medium grades of wool and 
shoddy and finished with a considerable nap, which is well brushed and laid 




32-Ounce Ulster Cloth. 



straight, resembling somewhat a zibeline, but without its luster. The fabric 
is of relatively low texture, having but 2,400 end? and 48 picks. It is. con- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



89 



structed with an extremely loose weave, an eight harness filling plush satin, 
both face and back. In order to obtain the best results, it is necessary that 
the stock should be carefully mixed at the picker and well carded. The 
roving may be made two-thirds draft, insuring the production of a full, 
round and elastic thread. Warp should be twisted to the right, and the filling 
spun left twist. Fabrics of this type are usually woven in the grey for 
piece-dyeing, or in a variety of mixtures. If the mixtures are to be black 
and white, the white should be bleached, which is an extremely simple 
process, and may be carried on without the use of any special apparatus. 
The method in general use in fancy cassimere mills is to use a clean dye- 
tub filled with clean, cold water. The bleaching bath is made up of 60 
pounds bisulphite of soda and 10 pounds oil of vitriol. Put 300 pounds of 
wool in the tub and let it stand all night. In tbe morning draw off the tub, 
extract and dry the wool, and it is ready for use. 

In making mixtures containing a small percentage of the white it may 





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STRAIGHT DRAW. 

Layout: 
2.400 end*. 48 picks. 
Reed: 8—4—75" between listing. 



Warp: 
2.400 thr., 2% run 10.66 oz. 



Filling: 
48 picks, 1% run 21.10 oz. 



31.78 oz. 
Ix>om take-up, 10% 3.17 oz. 



!xx>m weight 34.93 oz. 



Weave : 
Eight harness. 
Doskin weave. 



(Filling). 



Warp and Filling: 
In solid colors, as black, blue, brown and 
in all kinds of mixes. If white wool is used 
bleach same according to instructions given 
below. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material : 

60% med. grade wool @ 44c = $ .2640 

20% med. grade shoddy @ 18c = .0360 

20% med. grade wool waste @ 10c. = .0200 

16) $ .3200 



An ounce * .0200 

34.93 oz. plus 15% shrinkage 

5.23 oz. 



40.16 oz. 



2c. 



Manufacturing : 

48 picks 

5% cloth shrinkage. 



$ .8032 



. — .3246 
.— .t)600 



Mill cost 



$1.1872 



be found beneficial to mix an equal quantity of black with the white and 
run this through the mixing picker first, then add this mixture of black and 
white in proper proportions to the balance of the batch. In this way a much 
more even mix can be secured. Mixtures containing less than 20 per cent 
of any given color should have at least three runs through the mixing picker 
or the resulting mixture is very liable to appear blotchy in the goods. 

Warps May Be Dressed on a Dry Frame, 
as no size will be needed. The size of the yarn and the few interlacings of 





90 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



the weave will easily stand any strain that will normally be placed on it. 
The burlers should be instructed to raise all knots and clip the ends off, 
leaving them sufficiently long, so that during fulling they will not draw back 
into the goods and leave pin holes. There should be practically no sewing on 
a fabric of this kind. For fulling use a full-bodied, pure palm oil soap, forti- 
fied with sufficient alkali to thoroughly saponify the grease contained in the 
goods. Full as quickly as possible, and do not attempt to secure much felt. 
Scour thoroughly, extract and place on the napper. If a wire napper is used, 
this operation will take only a very short time, but if the operation is per- 
formed on the old-style teasel gig it will require six to ten runs to get the 
desired amount of nap. After napping, give three or four runs on the wet 
brush, extract and dry. Shear off only the long hairs and give a light 
pressing. 



RUSSIAN TWILL DRESS GOODS 

Twill dress goods are usually made from a fine grade of wool, woven 
in the white and piece-dyed into the various shades, as taste and fashion de- 
mand. The yarn is spun, both warp and filling, right twist, the goods are fin- 
ished with no endwise shrinking, and are sheared out clean so as to show the 
twill. Very satisfactory fabrics of this type may be made from either pulled 
or shorn wools. The fabric here described was made from a nice half-blood 




8-Ounce Dress Goods. 



territory. The wool should be carefully sorted, all paint and burs clipped 
out, and scoured with a pure potash soap. When dry, the wool may be taken 
to the picker house, given 12 quarts of an emulsion made up of two pails 
of water to one pail of oil and saponified with borax or some Other mild 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



91 



alkali. One run through the mixing picker should be sufficient. The cards 
must be in No. 1 condition, set rather closely and kept thoroughly clean. 
The roving should be made half draft, which 

Will Insure a Good Production 
from the cards and enable the spinner to produce a smooth, round, strong 
thread. On yarns as fine as used in this fabric it will be advisable to use a 
fairly heavy size. Many mill managers will take exceptions to this method 
of procedure. An experience of many years on a variety of goods has con- 
vinced the writer that it is possible to secure a much greater production 
from the weave room if warps are sized when the yarns are finer than 5% 
run. It not only insures better running work in the weave room but also 
eliminates much of the sewing due to broken threads. Full to 56 inches and 
transfer immediately to the washers. When thoroughly clean, the goods may 
be taken to the dyehouse without extracting or drying. Dyeing is carried on 
in the ordinary form of piece-dye kettle in which the goods pass over a reel 
and are alternately in and out of the dye-liquor. When the correct shade 
has been attained, cool off the pieces in the tub, rinse, extract and dry. The 
dry-finishing operation on fabrics of this type is very simple. After a run on 
the brush, they should be sheared rather closely, given a run on the steam 
brush and pressed. 











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DRAFT. 



Layout: 

6 

3,000 ends, 36 picks — = 66" finished. 
4 

Reed: 10% — 4 — 71" between listing. 
Warp: 

3,000 ends, 7 run 4.29 oz. 

Filling: 

36 picks, 6 run 4.50 oz. 

2" for listing. 

8.79 oz. 
10% loom shrinkage 0.87 oz. 

Loom weight 9.66 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 
9.66 oz. plus 16% shrinkage = 11.10 oz. 
fine wool. 

Material: 

56c. fine grade wool at 3%c. an ounce. 

11.10 oz. @ 3%c = $ .3886 

Manufacturing : 

36 picks = $ .2750 

Mill cost (per yard) $ .6635 



TWEEDS 



The tweed is said to have received its name as the result of an error 
in attempting to read the handwriting of an old Scotchman who, as a result 
of having some tender yarn in the mill, doubled the threads, twisted them, 
dressed a warp, which he wove in single filling, and sent the finished fabric 
to his London factor. In his letter he stated that he was sending some 
tweels, which he hoped might meet with a ready sale. In reading the letter, 
the sales agent mistook the word tweel for tweed, and advertised the goods 
extensively as something new. They immediately took the popular fancy, 
resulting in some very satisfactory orders, and these orders went down to 
the mill, marked "Scotch Tweeds." 



n 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 




12-Ounce Spring Suiting. 

In its construction, the tweed is somewhat similar to a cheviot, being 
of relatively low texture, and not closely finished. The 

Chief Point of Difference 
lies in the fact that tweeds are invariably made with a two-ply warp, some- 



Layout : 

1,728 ends, 34 picks. 

Reed 6^—4—66, 46 inches between listing. 
Warp: 

1.728 thr., 5% run, double twist 6.28 oz. 

Filling: 

34 picks, 4 run 5.80 oz. 

12 inches for listing. 



BROKEN TWILL, HERRINGBONE. 



12.08 oz. 
Loom shrinkage. 10% 1.20 oz. 



Loom weight 13.28 oz 

Warp : 

Double twist. 12 turns to the inch. 
Filling: 

Plain black with decoration. 

MATERIAL. 
50% fine wool @ $ .0056 = $ .2800 
607c med. wool @ .0040 = .2000 



16)$ .4800 



Finished loom length, an oz. $ .0300 

COST CALCULATION. 
11.28 ozs. plus 15% = 15.27 ozs. @ 3c. 
Manufacturing: 

34 picks 

For twisting 

Mill cost, per yard 



.2670 
.0500 



% .7751 





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2 Times. 



2 Times = 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



93 



times with two-ply filling, but more frequently the filling is single. The ma- 
jority of these fabrics are made from medium grades of wool, usually of 
quarter-bloods spun to about four run and doubled with about eight turns 




16-Ounce Fall Suiting. 

to the inch. The warp yarn should be spun about half draft and made as 
smooth as possible. Weaving of tweeds should give an excellent production, 
as the warp yarns are strong and should weave with practically no breaks 
whatever. The single filling is somewhat heavier than the original thread 
spun for the warp, but seldom is made as heavy as the resulting warp twist. 
After burling and sewing, the goods should be fulled for a short time, as 
no felt is necessary. Scour thoroughly with a full-bodied neutral soap, and 
rinse well. After drying, place on the steam brush, then shear to what is 
termed a semifinish. Press hard and give a run on brush before rolling up. 



Layout: 

1,400 ends. 24 picks. 
Reed 10%— 2— 66, 66 inches between listing. 
Warp : 

1.400 thr., 3% run, double twist 8.00 oz. 

Filling: 

24 picks, 2 run 8.24 oz. 

Two inches for listing. 

16.24 oz. 
10% for loom shrinkage 1.62 oz. 

Loom weight 17.86 oz. 

Warp: 

Double twist, 8 to 9 turns to the inch. 
Filling: 

Plain black, with twist decoration. 



Material: 

Medium grade wool @ $ .44 — .0275 an ounce. 

COST CALCULATION. 

17.86 oz. plus 157o = 20.53 oz. @ $ .0275 = $ .5645 

Manufacturing : 

24 picks = .2260 

For twisting = .0500 

Mill cost, per yard $ .8405 



94 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



COMBINATION: 4 HARNESS TWILL, AND BASKET HERRINGBONE. 





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LADIES' SUITINGS 



Fabrics of this type may be made from good A super wools or from an 
equivalent grade of territories. The use of A super is to be preferred, it 
the styles in demand are mixtures, as the pulled wools are less inclined to 
prove specky, and, as a general tiling, are freer, making a more homoge- 
neous mixture, free from the blotchy appearance so frequently seen even 
in high-priced cloths. Care must be observed in the dyeing, so as to prevent 
felting of the stock, which detracts not a little from its carding and spinning 
qualities. The preparation of the stock for the card room must be thorough, 
the oiling and picking being very important processes in the production of 
any kind of woolens, and especially so when fine yarns are to be made. The 
amount of oil to be applied to the stock depends somewhat on the 

Quality and Condition, 

and varies with weather conditions to a certain extent. The cards should 
be in Al condition, set fairly close, so as to comb out any pills of short 
stock in the batch. The roving must be free and clear, well rubbed and 
made half draft. With roving in good condition, the production of the mules 
should show a high percentage of efficiency and a strong, smooth thread. 
During the winter months the carder may experience some difficulty with 
electricity at the condensers, but there are appliances now obtainable which 
are claimed to obviate this entirely. If these devices are not to be had, an 
application of alum water in small quantities in the picker room will do 
much to eliminate this feature. It should not be applied too freely, as it is 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



OS 



somewhat of a hindrance in the finishing. The yarns should be carefully 
spooled, with knots tied in such a manner that they will 

Not Slip During Dressing 
or weaving. Weaving cloth from well-made yarns with the layout given 
should show a relatively high production of practically perfect cloth. A well ■ 




17^2-Ounce Heavy-Weight Cassimere. 

known Connecticut mill, manufacturing a fabric similar to that here de- 
scribed, but with 40 picks of 5% -run filling, operated 30 looms full time for 
several years with but two girls in the finishing room, who did all the burl- 
ing, sewing, specking and mending. This record is not beyond the reach 
of others, if they will pay the same careful attention to selection of stock 



STRAIGHT DRAW. 



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Warp and filling: 

2 light, 2 dark, with fancy stripes. 



DECLINAL TWILL, WEAVE. 
Also made plain light warp and 
dark filling. 

STRAIGHT DRAW. 

Repeats on five harness. 







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96 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



and yarn manufacture. When burled and sewed, the pieces are put through 
the soaping machine, even distribution of the soap being absolutely neces- 
sary if perfect results are to be obtained in fulling. If no soaping machine 
is at hand, the pieces may be run into the mill and the soap applied in a 
semifluid condition as the goods enter the rolls. Full to 56 inches, scour 
thoroughly, rinse and dry. The goods are not fulled in length but finished 
loom yards. From the dryer take to the shear, and give sufficient runs to 
clear them out, brush and press. 



Layout : 

2,040 ends, 34 picks. 

Reed: 7% — 4, 68 inches between listing. 

Warp: 

2,040 thr., 5 run 4.08 oz. 

Filling: 

34 picks, 5 run 4.76 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

9.94 ozs. and 15% shrinkage = 

11.43 ozs. @ 3.32c = $ .3794 

Manufacturing: 

34 picks = .2670 



9.04 oz. 
Loom shrinkage 90 oz. 



Mill cost, a yard. 



$ .6464 



Equal loom weight 9.94 oz. 



Material: 

75% fine wool @ 56c 

25% medium wool @ 44c. 



= * 



4200 
1100 



16 ) $ .6300 



* .0332 



HEAVY-WEIGHT CASSIMERE 



The comparatively low price of worsteds, combined with the fact that 
it is possible to secure much snappier, clean-cut styles in a worsted fabric 




mSSSKSSKHu _ 'TlWnlWff IHIIIMHIIIfli HIl'Mf Willi™ 1 

17!/ 2 -° unc e Heavy-Weight Cassimere. 

than can be produced in woolens, has been responsible, in a marked degree, 
for the lack of interest in cassimeres. While the cassimere will give ex- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



97 



cellent service and is a fabric of much more warmth than a worsted of the 
same weight, popular taste, educated to a great extent by the clothier, has 
demanded worsteds for suiting purposes. It is only within the last two gen- 
erations that the worsted fabric has come to the front. Previous to that 
time there were comparatively few worsted mills in the country, and many 
of the old-time manufacturers, when asked to make a line of samples from 
the new yarn, laughed at the idea, thinking it was only a temporary fad. 
A few, who were more progressive than their neighbors, started the manu- 
facture of worsted yarns and fabrics, making comfortable fortunes for them- 
selves. The relative position of the two branches of the industry is shown 
by the number of looms devoted to woolens and worsteds in 1869 and in 
1909, a period of 40 years intervening. In 1869 there were 34,183 woolen 

NUMBERED FOR REDUCTION. 
TOP. 



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Full Design Draft. 

and 6,126 worsted looms, while in 1909 the woolen looms were but 33,148 
and the worsted looms 39,476. 

The manufacture of fancy cassimeres requires talent of no mean va- 
riety, and offers to the trained mind a field second to none. The knowledge 
of stocks, necessary to the successful operation of a woolen mill, can only 
be gained by long years of experience in handling them and careful observa- 



98 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



tion of the various fibres and their action during the intricate manufacturing 
processes. There are many who are positive that the success of the mill 
lies 

Entirely with the Designer, 

but this is a mistaken idea. Not that we would belittle that extremely im- 
portant branch of the business, but it must be admitted that the foundation 



Layout : 

1,828 ends, 30 picks. 
Reed 9 — 3 — 67, 75 inches between listing. 
Warp : 

1,828 thr., m. run 8.12 oz. 

Filling: 

30 picks, 2& run 9.29 oz. 



Material: 

50% coarse grade wool @ % .0036.... = $ .1800 

20% medium grade wool @ ? .0040.. = .0880 

20% medium grade shoddy @ $ .0020 = .0400 

10% med. grade wool waste @ % .0012 = .0120 



16 )% .320(1 



2 inches for listing 17.41 oz. 

Loom shrinkage, 10% 1.74 oz. 



An ounce 

19.15 ozs. stock plus 15% = 22.02 ozs., 



$ .0200 



Equal loom weight 19.15 oz. 



2c. 

Manufacturing : 
30 picks . . . 



$ .4404 
= .2500 



Mill cost, per yard. 



$ .6904 



of the whole manufacturing structure is an intimate knowledge of the stocks 
required to give the desired effect in the finished fabric. Unless the proper 
stocks are combined to make the yarn, the efforts of the most skillful de- 
signer will not avail to bring out a salable fabric. 

One of the most important features of woolen manufacturing, and one 
that is very frequently neglected, is the mixing and oiling of the stock in 



























































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Drawing-in Draft. 

the picker house. This operation should be in charge of a man who is ab- 
solutely reliable, as an error here may easily prevent the successful pro- 
duction of the fabric. The percentage of the various stocks and colors must 
be weighed exactly, or it will be practically impossible to duplicate the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 99 

style when it becomes necessary to do so. The quantity of oil in the emul- 
sion, and amount of emulsion put on the lots, must be kept uniform, or it 
will be impossible for the carder to make even roving or for the 

Spinner to Produce Even Yarns 
from day to day. Such items as these may appear too small to notice, but 
it is attention to these seeming trivialities that wins success for the mill 
manager. 

The carder should use the greatest care to have the stock well opened 
and the roving free from, twits or heavy places. It has often been said that 
the card room is the heart of the fancy cassimere mill, and the statement 
has much of truth in it, for if the stock is not properly carded, it is im- 
possible to make a yarn from the roving that will give satisfactory results 
in other departments of the mill. The roving should be made heavy enough 
to permit of half draft on the mules, so as to allow sufficient drawing to 
straighten out the fibres as much as possible, thus forming a thread of the 
greatest strength that can be obtained from the stock used. Many times 
the fact that a warp runs poorly in the loom is attributed to the use of too 
low a stock when, in a great majority of cases, the trouble lies, not in the 
stock but in the fact that it has 

Not Been Intelligently Handled, 

and its full possibilities been developed in the spinning room. When the 
spinner's attention is called to the fact that the yarns are not strong, the 
usual procedure is to give it another hole of twist or to let it out a hole, the 
latter process making a heavier thread, and throwing the cost calculations 
into more or less confusion. Instead of this methoa of overcoming the 
trouble, it would be much better in the majority of cases to consult with 
the carder and see if, by a change in the roving, it would not be feasible to 
draw the yarn more, securing a greater parallelization of the fibres, and 
so materially increasing the strength of the thread. To many spinners, the 
mule seems to be simply a machine for twisting the roving and placing the 
yarn on bobbins. This is an entirely wrong conception of the machine. As 
pointed out in the article on wool spinning, the functions of the mule are 
threefold, drawing, twisting and winding the yarn on bobbins. While the 
last two are very important, it must be kept in mind that the first is fully 
as essential to the production of a perfect thread as either of the others. 
It must be apparent to anyone that the greatest strength of a fibre is in the 
direction of its length, so that the 

More Nearly Straight 

the fibres are laid in the thread, the stronger it becomes. Twist is a very 
important factor in giving strength to the yarn also, but beyond certain lim- 
its it has the opposite tendency, making the yarn harsh and brittle. Every 
spinner has doubtless had proof of the latter statement, and seen ends 
break down because of "twisting off." Another source of trouble when spin- 
ning yarns from a shoddy mixture is the presence of "hard ends" in the 
stock. These are threads of unusually hard twist, which have resisted the 
action of the garnett machine or rag picker. As they retain the twist orig- 
inally given the yarn, it is impossible to draw them on the mule, conse- 
quently the end breaks down as the carriage comes out. The style here de- 
scribed requires 24 harnesses for its reproduction, and in getting the loom 
ready for the weaver, the fixer must use care and judgment to time the va- 
rious parts of the loom so that each will perform its function with the least 
possible strain. The weaver should give strict attention to warp and filling, 
replacing broken ends as soon as discovered, as every thread must be in its 



100 



Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 





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Chain Draft, 24 Harness, 48 Bars. 



place in the finished fabric. When taken from the looms 
the pieces should be perched, every imperfection marked, and 
the cloth measured and weighed. A record of the piece number, loom 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 101 

number, weaver's name, length and weight of the piece, should be made in a 
suitable book, and also any details as to imperfections noted. Burling must 
be thoroughly done, as a knot allowed to remain in the goods is very li- 
able to cause a hole during shearing. Every broken end or pick must be 
replaced by the sewers, coarse ends removed and a perfect thread substi- 
tuted, floats and holes repaired, slugs reduced, in fact, the cloth put in as 
nearly perfect condition as is possible. 

Fulling should be done in the grease, the soap used being a pure neu- 
tral base, built up with a mild alkali and absolutely without free caustic 
alkali, as this has an extremely harmful effect on the wool fibre, rendering 
the goods harsh and wiry. From the fulling mills transfer at once to the 
washer and scour for 30 to 40 minutes in warm water. Open the gates and 
rinse well. Should there be the least doubt as to the goods being 

Thoroughly Clean, 

give another 20 minutes' scouring with fresh soap and warm water, tak- 
ing care that every trace of soap is rinsed out before the pieces are taken 
from the washer. Extract and dry before napping. As it is not desired to 
finish the goods with a nap, but to have them as clear as possible, the ob- 
ject to be obtained on the napper is not to form a nap but simply to raise 
the fibres so that they may be readily removed by the shear blade. This is 
much more readily accomplished by running the cloth on the napper dry, 
as the fibres stand out from the body of the fabric. Much better results will 
be obtained by shearing slowly, that is by giving several runs instead of 
lowering the blade and attempting to remove all the nap at the first opera- 
tion. Clear out the twill so that every individual thread shows distinctly, 
brush, spray and press. The result will be a fabric of which any finisher 
might well be proud. 



VENETIANS 

The Venetian is a fine woolen cloth used extensively for spring top- 
coats, ladies' jackets and in the lighter weights for skirtings. They are fre- 
quently made in piece- dyes, but for coating purposes are usually produced 
in mixtures, and in many instances the mixture Venetians are sold under the 
name of coverts. There is no excuse whatever for confusing the two fabrics, 
as they are of entirely different construction, the only point of similarity 
being the fine diagonal twill. Venetians are made from single yarns, both in 
warp and filling, while the true covert is made with a two-ply warp 
of contrasting colored twists and a single filling. The sample here illustrat- 
ed was made from a stock mixture of two grades of wool well combined with 
a fine shoddy. To many manufacturers the stock mixture used will appear 
incapable of being spun to weavable yarns of the size here given, but with 
the proper equipment in the carding department and a capable overseer, no 
serious difficulty will be encountered. 

Good Cards and a Skilled Carder Necessary. 

It must be distinctly understood, however, that both elements of this 
proposition must be present in order to secure the desired results. For the 
manufacture of piece-dyed Venetians the Texas wools are very nicely 
adapted, giving a fabric that is well felted and with an exceptionally soft, 
full handle in the semifinished cloths. The wools to be used will differ 
with the type of finish required, which varies extremely at different sea- 
sons. At times the trade will have nothing but cloths that are well cleared 
out, with the twill prominent and every thread distinct, very much re- 



102 Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 

sembling that closely related fabric, the whipcord, while another season de- 
mands a fabric with considerable nap and the twill scarcely discernable. 

It is a matter of extreme difficulty to describe the different varieties of 
wool so as to enable those not thoroughly familiar with the various grades 
and types to differentiate between them. It is only by being brought into 




12-Ounce Venetian. 

actual contact with the stocks over a considerable period of time that one 
is able to determine with any degree of accuracy the particular type of wool 

Best Adapted for the Fabric 

to be manufactured. This feature of manufacturing has not received the at- 
tention that its importance demands. Many of those engaged in the textile 
industry both in the manufacturing end and the merchandising of the prod- 
uct, lay undue stress upon designing, as though style was the all-important 
feature. Granting that, other things being equal, style has more to do in. 
creating a market for the product than anything else, it must also be ad- 
mitted that a line poorly constructed, no matter how intelligent the styling 
may be, will never meet with success. 

It is especially essential in these days of severe competition that the 
manager of a textile mill should be an expert manipulator of stocks, as it is in 
this part of the manufacturing that profits may be made or lost very rap- 
idly. For the production of the mixture Venetians, which imitate the true 
coverts in shade, it is advisable to use a pulled wool for the white in the 
mix. There are several excellent reasons for so doing, one of the best be- 
ing the fact that a pulled wool can be obtained that will be more open, 
freer, and less apt to cause specks, which is a very common defect in 
mixtures. Another defect frequently found in mixtures, particularly those 
containing a very small percentage of one color, is a blotchy or streaky 
appearance, due to improper mixing. The writer has seen many prices 
which were rejected by the sponger for this reason alone. The cloth was 
perfect in every other respect, but it would be impossible to make it into 
salable garments because of the unevenness of the mixture. That a defect 
of this sort should appear in woolens is not, perhaps, to be surprised at, 
as the process of carding in use to-day makes so few doublings possible, 
but the same imperfection is not infrequently seen in worsted goods where 
the doublings in manufacturing the yarns are so numerous. To obviate^ 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 103 

danger of imperfections of this sort, the man in charge of the picking 
should be instructed to use great care in laying down the batch, and to 
give at least 

Three Runs Through the Mixing 
picker. The oiling should have careful attention that every part of the 
batch may receive its due share of lubricant. It may be that these details 
are enlarged upon unduly, but so many cases have been brought to our 
attention in which the sole cause of the difficulty was lack of attention to 
one of these so-called "minor details," that it is evidently necessary to 
emphasize them, that they may be borne in mind. The question as to 
the best oil to use as a lubricant during the carding and spinning is one 
that must be decided by the individual manufacturer. There are those 
who will under no circumstances use anything but a red or a lard oil, while 
in other mills mineral oils are used exclusively, and with very satisfactory 
results. As a general proposition, it is safe to say that the best oil is the 
cheapest. The emulsion may be formed with varied proportions of oil and 
water, as the judgment of the manager may indicate. For the stock used 
in the sample here described the proportions may be one-third oil and two- 
thirds water, cut with borax or some other mild alkali. This should be 
applied warm at the rate of twelve quarts per hundred pounds of stock, 
and the batch beaten with a pole to secure penetration. 

The cards should be in Al condition, set fairly close, so as to eliminate 
all danger of specks, the roving well rubbed, and made for spinning at 
half draft. Spinners should be instructed to make no splicings 
on the yarn intended for warp, but to tie all broken ends. Spooling, in it- 
self an extremely simple operation, may be the cause of much trouble and 
many imperfections in subsequent processes, if carelessly performed. The 
operatives must tie the knots so that there is no danger of slipping during 
dressing or weaving, breaking the ends off short, so that they will not 
become entangled with the threads and cause them to break during weaving. 
Fabrics of this character are usually woven on the five or seven harness doe- 
skin weave, either of which will form "floats" easily, that is, a slight lump of 
flyings, or the long ends of a knot are very liable to prevent the warp 
threads from 

Interlacing with the Filling 

properly. The weaver must use great care to guard against imperfections 
of this nature, or the cost of sewing will be increased to a marked degree. 
Burlers must remove every knot, leaving the ends to be clipped off by the 
shear. After sewing, the pieces may be taken to the wet finishing and 
prepared for the mills. 

The use of a soaping machine is strongly advised, particularly on goods 
of this character which full very easily. Even application of the soap is 
absolutely essential in order to secure evenly fulled pieces. The soap 
should be made up from a pure neutral palm oil base, built up with a pure 
alkali, absolutely without any trace of free caustic. After running a few 
minutes the goods should be examined to see that the grease and dirt are 
being properly raised. This may be readily ascertained by holding the cloth 
over the fingers and scraping the thumb nail against the cloth. If the 
soap is of the correct consistency with sufficient detergent qualities the 
dirt and grease will flow out over the thumb nail readily. Full to fifty- 
seven inches, then wash thoroughly and dry. If the finish desired requires 
considerable nap, the pieces may be placed on the wire napper or gigs before 
drying, but for a clear finish they should be dried, tbeji given a light napping 



104 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



or more properly "raising," as the object in view is not to form a nap, but 

to raise the fibres so that they may be readily removed by the shear. After 
shearing, brush, dew and press. 



Selvage on extra harness, or straps on 
basket; 2 and 2 to keep it from, rolling. 



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STRAIGHT DRAW. 



Five harness. 
Doskin weave. 



Layout: 
3,4(58 ends. 50 picks an inch. 
Reed: 10^—5—69.1 inches between the Hating. 

Warp: 
3,648 thr., 6 run 6.08 oz. 

Filling: 
50 picks, 5% run 6.40 oz. 



12.48 oz. 
Loom shrinkage, 10% 1.25 oz. 



Loom weight 13.73 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 



Material: 

50% fine wool @ 56c 

30% medium wool @ 44c. 
20% fine shoddy @ 24c... 



.= $ .2800 
.= .1320 
.= .0480 



16)| .4600 



An ov~ce 



.0288 



13.73 ounce stock plus 15% shrinkage = 
15.50 ounces @ 2.88c = $..4464 

Manufactures : 

50 picks = .3330 



Mill cost 



.7794 



LADIES DOUBLE-FACE GOODS 

The manufacture of goods of this character requires the use of fine 
wools, and should not be attempted unless the preparatory machinery in the 
mill is in Al condition. Fine yarns cannot be produced with any degree of 
success with card clothing in the condition of that in many of our mills. 
The wool selected for the sample here described is a fine selected Montana, 
which costs on to-day's market 56 cents per pound clean. The stock mix- 
ture is composed of 75 per cent wool and -25 per cent of a fine shoddy. The 
wools should be carefully sorted, then scoured with a mild detergent, the 
working qualities of the wool depending, to a very considerable degree, on 
its treatment during me scouring operation. 

The custom in many mills, now being rapidly superseded by the me- 
chanical wool washer, was to use the old-fashioned hand tub and rinse box. 
Too often this primitive equipment was entrusted to the care of low-priced 
help, with no idea of the irreparable injury that might be done to the staple 
by carelessness in handling. The scouring bath was made up of harsh 
soaps and soda ash, a combination that even in the 

Hands of Skilled Operatives 

must be used with great care. This mixture was boiled up in a circular 
vat, then water added until the liquor was bearable to the hand. A part 
of the wool to be scoured was then thrown into the tub and agitated with 
a pole for a short time and allowed to stand until, the grease and dirt were 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



105 



well softened. A part of the stock was then removed with a fork and placed 
on a rack to drain, a sloping table under the drainer returning the surplus 
liquor to the vat. The next operation was the rinsing, accomplished by 
throwing the wool into the "rinse box," where it was subjected to the ac- 
tion of a stream of water, usually taken from the fore bay of the water 




Double-Color Twill Face and Lone Colored Back. 



wheel, and frequently none too clean. That excellent results are obtainable 
by this method is not to be denied, but that in many instances the results 
were far from satisfactory is a fact well known to many who have had to 
deal with stock scoured by incompetent workmen. It must not be under- 
stood from the foregoing that the trouble was entirely with the method, 
as many of our present-day superintendents have seen goods produced from 
wools scoured in the hand tub that would compare very favorably with any 
produced in the latest of our new mills with their modern equipment. In the 
former days, as at present, it was largely a question of men, not methods. 
The great mistake was made frequently of underestimating the importance 
of an apparently simple operation. 

Cleansing the Wool 

from the natural impurities is apparently a process requiring no particular 
skill, nor should it be necessary to pay high wages to the one in charge of 
the scouring. A careful examination of the fibre and an intimate knowledge 
of its physical structure reveals to the student the necessity for care in 
handling such an intricately constructed fibre in every process of manu- 
facture. Under the microscope the wool fibre is seen to be covered with 



io6 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



innumerable scales, or imbrications, which may be easily injured by harsh 
treatment. The spinning and felting properties are largely dependent upon 
these imbrications, as during the various processes of manufacture they 
interlock with each other, particularly in the fulling, and aid materially in 
making the cloth a firm, compact fabric. The chief sources of injury to the 
stock during the scouring are the use of too severe alkalis as detergents 
and excessive heat iin the scouring bath. Either will so affect the stock 
that it may be Impossible to spin it to the desired size, and also will very 



'IS 1 ! 



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Warp: 
1 thr., light mix face. 
1 thr., fancy back. 
1 thr., cotton binder. 
1 thr.. light mix face I j times 
1 thr., fancy back J 

Filling: 9 thr. 
1 pick, dark mix face. 
1 pick, fancy back. 



much depreciate the handle of the finished goods. Excessive heat in drying 
the stock should also be avoided. 

In the Dyehouse. 

Wools for manufacturing the fabrics here described must be stock- 
dyed, that is to say, colored in the raw state, as it is neither practical nor 
profitable to color wool yarn in the skein. The method of dyeing to be used 
is a matter for the dyer to decide. The use of acid colors is common prac- 
tice on dress fabrics, but does not give colors that will compare with 
alizarines for fastness, either to light or fulling. If alizarine colors are to 
be used they may be either bottom chromed or colored by the top chrome 
method. The latter method is preferred by many dyers, as they think the 
colors developed in this way are brighter and livelier than those colored 
by bottom chroming. Care must be taken not to allow the kettle to boil too 
hard, as it has a decided tendency to "rope" the stock and render it difficult 
to card and spin besides injuring its felting properties. After coloring, rinse 
well and dry. The wool and shoddy must be thoroughly mixed in the picker 
house, and should have an application of four quarts of oil to the hundred 
weight of stock. It is customary to apply the oil in the 

Form of an Emulsion, 

which may be mixed in the proportion of one pail of oil and two pails of 
water, emulsified with borax, sal soda, or some other mild alkali. The 
application of twelve quarts of emulsion will give the required amount of 
oil, and add sufficient moisture to insure the stock working nicely on the 
cards. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



107 



The carding of stock for fine yarns requires considerable skill, and also 
necessitates the keeping of the card clothing in good condition. The workers 
on the first breaker should be set with at least a 28 gauge, and many 




Double-Colored Herringbone Face and Lone-Colored Back. 

carders insist that a 30 gauge would improve matters. The finisher should be 
set with a 32 gauge, the rings nicely adjusted to the cylinder, and the 
corduroy wipe roll newly covered, if it shows signs of much wear. With 
the stock mixture used in the sample, it may be necessary to give the 
spinner slightly more than half draft, always keeping in mind the fact that 



Layout : 

8,600 ends, 52 picks. 

Reed: 12—5, 4—66.66 inches between listing. 

Don't count binder in reeding. 



Warp: 

3,200 thr., 6 run 5.33 oz. 

400 thr., 3/40 cotton, 10% run 0.38 " 

Filling: 

52 picks, 6 run 5.95 " 



11.66 oz. 
Loom shrinkage, 10% 1.16 " 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

75% fine wool @ 56c. a lb = $ .4201) 

25% fine shoddy <S> 24c. a lb = .0600 



16) ? .4800 



An ounce $.0300 

12.82 ounce stock plus 15% 



14.74 ounce 

Manufacturing : 

52 picks . . . 



3c. 



c= $ .4422 
.= .3410 



Mill cost a yard 



.7832 



Welghi out the loom 12.82 oz. 

in order to make a round, strong thread, it must be drawn on the mule 
sufficiently to straighten out the fibres to the greatest possible extent. The 
top and bottom spools on the cards should be kept separate and spun on 
separate mules, unless the machines are equipped with double roving gears, 
as are the latest types of nearly all makes. Even with the best of equip- 



108 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



ment it is a matter of some little difficulty to get yarn from both doffers 
exactly alike, and it is advisable to keep the yarns separate in the weave 
room if they are to be used for filling. Every spinner should be warned 

Full Draft. 



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£0 tie all broken ends, not alone for the reason that splicings made in front 
of the rolls are apt to pull apart in the loom, but to avoid the lumps in 
the yarn that usually accompany unskillful splicing. 

The question of sizing the warps on the dressing frame is one that admits 
of good arguments on both sides, but it is very probable that the time lost 
in the dressing room, owing to the slow speed at which the dressers may 
be operated when running sized work, will be more than compensated for 
by the increased production in the weave room. Some dresser tenders ob- 
ject to using a warp compressor, but the experience of many years has 
amply proven that warps beamed with its aid will run much better in the 

Drawing-in Draft. 















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loom, as the life and elasticity of the yarn is conserved to a remarkable 
degree. With well-made yarns, the weaving should proceed with a minimum 
of difficulty. The weaving of double-face goods is usually performed with 
that side up which has the 

Most Difficult Pattern 
to care for. If both sides are of a solid color, or simply contrasting warp 
and filling, it is immaterial which side is uppermost. The burling must 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 109 

be carefully attended to, all knots and slugs removed before the pieces are 
sent to the sewers. The sewers should replace all broken threads and 
picks, both back and face, repair floats and all other damages as far as 
possible. 

In the wet finishing, a very serious and not uncommon defect in goods of 
this kind may develop, that is the showing of the back color on the face, 
or vice versa. This is oftentimes attributed to faulty work in the dyehouse, 
the finisher claiming that the colors have bled and stained the goods, but 
in the majority of cases the trouble will be found in the fulling mills. The 
goods have been run too long, the result being that the 

Fibres Have Worked Through 
and are showing on the opposite side. The remedy for this is obvious. The 
goods should be so constructed that the fulling may take place without dan- 
ger of such a result. Full to 57 inches and transfer immediately to the 
washer. Run for twenty to thirty minutes in warm water. The goods should 
lather up freely without the addition of soap. Rinse thoroughly and extract. 
If the goods are to have a velour finished back, take to the napper before 
drying, as the nap may be raised much more easily in the presence of 
moisture and with much less loss of stock. Dry, brush and shear both sides, 
brush, spray and press. These fabrics are made in a variety of styles and 
weights, with plain and fancy backs. The illustration at the head of this 
article shows a plain twill face and back. The second illustration shows the 
same fabric with a herringbone pattern. Special attention is called to the 
method of uniting the face and back fabrics by means of an independent 
cotton tie thread. This has been found to eliminate the defect formerly so 
often found in double-face goods, the so-called stitchy appearance due to 
binding the cloths by lowering the face warp to the back for one pick, or 
the opposite method of raising a thread of the back warp over a face pick. 
Both fabrics have the - same layout, calculations and chain drafts. 



WOOLEN SUITINGS 



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13|4-Ounce Woolen Suiting. 
The decadence of the carded woolen division of the textile industry is 
explained in a variety of ways to suit the ideas of the speaker. When the final 



110 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



analysis is made, it will probably be found that an element of truth exists 
in several of the apparently very diverse reasons given. There are to be 
found those who are sincere in their conviction that the entire trouble is 
due to inequitable tariff legislation, claiming that the Payne-Aldrich Bill 
gave manufacturers of worsteds a great advantage over the carded woolen 
mills. Others are equally sure that the reason for the greatly reduced de- 
mand for woolens is the result of a change in the type of fabric desired by 
the ultimate consumer, while still another argument advanced is that woolen 
mills 

Have Not Been Progressive, 

and have failed to keep abreast of the times, developing no new cloths that 
appeal to the wearers, forcing them to turn to the worsted mills for fabrics 
such as they desire. The materials here illustrated and described, while pre- 
senting nothing particularly novel in construction or design, are such as 
would prove very attractive to one in search of a suit that would combine 
service and appearance. With well-selected stock, well manipulated in the 
carding and spinning rooms, a yarn may be produced that will permit of 



DRESS ED. 



Black, 


3% r.|| 5| . | . | . | . |6| . | . | . |5 | . | . | . | . | 6| . | . | . 


| = 23 


Red, 


3%r.|| . |1| . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . I . | . , . | . | . | . | . 


1 = 1 


White, 


3% r.|| . | . |2| . |2| . |2| . | 2| . | ..|2| . |2| . |2| . |2 


1 = .16 


Lavender, 


8% r.|| . | . | . |2| . | . | . |2| . | . I'. | . |2| . | . | .. |2 | . 


1 = 8 


Blue, 


8% r. || . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | 1| . | . | . | . | . | . | . 


1 = 1 



= 48 thr., one 
pattern; 480 one 
section. 5 sec- 
tions = 2,4 00 
ends. 



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CHAIN DRAFT. 



DRAWING-IN DRAFT. 



Woven 4 run black. 
Layout: 

2,400 ends, 40 picks. 

Reed No. 9 — 4 — 66.77" between listing. 

Warp: 

2,400 thr., 3% run = 6.86 oz. 

Filling: 

40 picks, 4 run = 6.86 oz. 

Allow V2" for listing. 

13.72 oz. 
10% loom shrinkage = 1.37 oz. 

Loom weight 15.09 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

Med. grade wool @ 40c. = 2%c. an oz. 

15.09 oz. plus 15% shrinkage 

17.35 oz. @ 2y 2 c = $ .4337 

Manufacturing: 

40 picks = .2910 

Mill cost .7247 



finishing the fabric in such a manner that it will very closely approximate a 
worsted in its appearance, and in actual service will give much better satis- 
faction to the wearer than a worsted fabric at the same, or even a slightly 
higher price. One of the very serious objections to a worsted made from 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



ill 



the lower grades is the fact that nothing will prevent its becoming shiny in 
spots with comparatively little wear. This is not so apt to be the case with 
a woolen, and . 

Another Advantage 
in the woolen suit is that it will retain its shape much longer than a cheap 
worsted. With the wool of the entire world at their disposal on equal terms 
with their competitors here and abroad, manufacturers of carded woolens 
should be in position to prove their contention that their lack of business 
was due to inability to secure raw materials on as favorable terms as their 
brethren in the worsted trade. The type samples were made from well- 
grown fleece wools of medium grade, carefully sorted, and scoured with in- 
telligence. The latter item is one of the most important in the whole 
scheme of manufacturing. The majority of scourers are imbued with the 
idea that wool scouring has as its only aim and object the thorough cleans- 
ing of the fibre from the foreign matter it contains in its natural state. 



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13|/2-Ounce Woolen Suiting. 



CHAIN DRAFT. 



While this is the primary object to be obtained by the scouring process, 
the fact should not be lost sight of that in addition to cleansing the wool 
it is extremely important that the 

Life, Elasticity and Luster 
of the fibre is not impaired, and that the physical structure of the fibre it- 
self is not injured in any way during the cleansing process. That irrep- 
arable injury may be done the wool by carelessness or inattention on the 



112 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

part of the scourer is a fact so well known as to require no lengthy proof 
at this time. The use of harsh detergents, too great heat in the scouring 
bath or during the drying, will have a deleterious effect on the stock and 
render it totally unfit for the use for which it was intended, changing 
entirely the appearance and handle of the finished fabric. 

Great injury may be done the fibre in the dyeing also, too severe boil- 
ing making the stock harsh in handle, brittle and tender, so that subsequent 
operations are attended with considerable difficulty and an excess of waste. 
Wool fibre is extremely responsive to kind treatment, and resents harsh 
handling to a remarkable degree. In the hands of skilled operatives it is 
susceptible of being made into the most delicate fabrics, with 

A Finish that Rivals Silk 

for softness and sheen. On the other hand, if handled without regard to 
its delicate structure, it will produce a fabric that is harsh to the touch, un- 
sightly and unattractive in every way. See that the stock is well opened 
and mixed in the picker room, and sufficient oil of good quality applied to 
give it thorough lubrication in the carding and spinning, as otherwise it 
will be impossible to secure the desired results. The wool is of such qual- 
ity that carding will be comparatively easy. The stock is lofty, standing 
up on the workers nicely and making very little waste. It will not be neces- 
sary to set closely, as the stock is open and very free. In condensing^ the 
rub aprons should not be set too close, the stock forming an excellent rov- 
ing without excessive rubbing. Make the roving half draft, setting the draw- 
ing-out scroll so that the carriage starts out at fairly good speed. If the 
carriage speed is low in starting from the rolls, the roving gets too much 
twist, with consequent difficulty in drawing. A very important item in the 
spinning of these yarns is the proper drafting on the mules. Good even yarn 
cannot be made without a fair amount of draft, though many spinners seem 
to lose sight of this fact. Twist the warp twenty turns to the right, the fill- 
ing 16 turns right twist, making a strong, round, smooth thread. Dressing 
warps from yarn of this kind that has been well spooled is a pleasure, there 
being no occasion to stop except to change the reel when sections are full 
or to tie in new spools. Beam hard with warp compressor on the beam. 
Production from the weave room should show a 

Very High Average, 

as the weavers will have little to do aside from changing shuttles, the warps 
running with practically no breaking of threads from start to finish. When 
taken from the looms, the pieces should immediately be perched, measured 
and weighed, the details, including piece number, loom number, date and 
weaver's name, being entered on a suitable blank. Burl carefully, raising 
the knots on boih sides and breaking them off with long ends, remove all 
slugs, filling drawn in or other imperfections of like nature. Sew in broken 
ends or picks, repair floats, holes or like damages, when the goods are ready 
for wet finishing. As it is proposed to give the goods a clear finish, 
the fulling should be done with a view to shrinking, not felting, and an 
hour's run in the mill should be ample to accomplish this. Scour thoroughly 
in warm water, rinse and extract. The handle and appearance of the goods 
would be much improved by a treatment on the wet brush, not for the 
brushing, but to facilitate steam blowing and a subsequent forcing of cold 
water through the roll. This should be done twice, changing ends on the 
roll between operations. Extract in the open if possible, and dry at & mod- 
erate heat. Give a little light work on old teasels to facilitate shearing, 
which must be as close as possible. Brush, spray and give a hard pressing. 



. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



113 



DRESSED. 



Black, 


3*411 3 


• 


• 


• 


■ 


* 


• 1 




. || = 16 


Red, 


3*411 • 


1 


• 


• 


■ 


■ 


• 1 




• II - 1 


White, 


3*411 . 


• 


2 


• 


2 


• 


2 1 




2 || = 16 


Lavender, 


3*411 • 


• 


• 


1 


• 


■ 


• 1 


1 


. || = 4 



3 times. 



= 36 thr , one pattern. 

396 ends to one section. 
6 sections = 2,376 ends. 



Woven plain black, 4 run. 
Layout: 

2,376 ends, 42 picks. 
Reed: 9 — 4 — 66" between listing. 
Warp: 

2,376 thr., 3*4 run = 6.78 oz. 

Filling: 

42 picks, 4 run = 7.12 oz. 

13.90 oz. 
10% loom shrinkage 1.39 oz. 

Loom weight 15.29 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

Med. grade wool @ 40c. = 2*4c. an oz. 

15. £9 and 15% shrinkage. 

17.58 at 2%c = $ .439.i 

Manufacturing : 

42 picks = .3000 

Mill cost $ .7395 



CAP GOODS 

The manufacture of cloths especially for the cap trade is a compara 
tively recent innovation, but in the recent past has developed into a very 
important branch of the woolen industry. The fabric here illustrated is typi- 
cal of many of the cloths now popular with cap makers. The yarns are 
made from medium wool and shoddy, spun to comparatively heavy counts 
with medium twist, so as to give a soft fabric with a bulky, woolly appear 




9i/2-Ounce Cap Cloth. 



ance and but little weight. The goods are of low texture and full readily no 
felt being required. Scour, dry and give a light shearing to take off th<r 
long hairs, brush and give a light pressing. 



ii4 



WOOLEN ANt) WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



The medium -weight cap cloths similar to that here illustrated are fre- 
quently made with a stock mixture slightly different from that used in the 
type sample. Many of the rough, shaggy caps now so popular for sporting 



1 




X 








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Full Draft. 

Straight draw, twill to the right. 
Dressed and woven. 
L light 
I dark. 



Layout : 

1.0S8 ends, IS picks. 
Reed: 

8—2 — 68 inches between listing. 
Warp: 

1,088 ends, 2% run 4.30 oz. 

Pilling: 

18 picks, iy 2 run 5.00 oz. 

2 in. allowed for listing. 9.30 oz. 

10% for loom shrinkage 0.93 " 

Loom weight 10.23 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 
70% medium grade of wool @ 40c. = % .2800 
25% medium grade of shoddy @ 20c. = .0500 
5% white nub @ 50c. = .0250 

16 ) $ .3550 

10.23 + 15%. Per oz., % .0222 

Material: 

15.35 oz. @ $.0222 = $.3407 

Manufacturing: 

IS picks = .2030 

Mill cost, per yard .5437 



wear are made from a mixture of Joria wool, garnetted quarter-blood 
thread waste, and for the white in the mixture, a bleached, China wool. A 
mixture of this kind made from tastefully selected colors produces a fabric 




Medium-Weight Cap Goods, "A\ Ounce. 



that has the nobby look that many people think is only to be found in for- 
eign fabrics. A glance over the line of some of our first-class domestic 
makers will soon disabuse one's mind of any such idea. Have the stock well 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



115 



carded, and spin with medium twist at two-thirds draft. This will produce an 
excellent weaving thread. Goods of this character should be fulled as 
quickly as possible and immediately transferred to the washer. Scour thor- 
oughly, dry and shear only enough to take off the long hairs. Brush, give a 
light pressing and roll up. 



Climbing diagonal to the right. 

Dressed a nd woven. 

1 thread dark. 

1 thread medium. 

1 thread light. 

3 threads, one pattern. 

Layout: 

1,260 ends, 24 picks. 

Reed: 

9—2—70 inches between listing. 
Warp : 

1,260 thr., 2 run 8.30 oz. 

Filling: 

24 picks, 2 run 8.80 ija. 

Allow two inches for listing 14.90 oz. 

10% loom shrinkage 1.49 

Loom weight lfi 39 .z. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 
75% medium grade of wool @ 40c. = $ MV) 
25% med. grade of shoddy @ 20e. =.- ,06'ifl 

1« >$ US'"; 

Per oz. % .0219 
16.39 oz stick and 15% shrinkage 

18.04 oz. @ $.0219 ...= $ .4125 

ManufaoniriiiK: 

24 picks = .2260 

Mill cost, per yard $ .6385 





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Straight Draw. 



The 20-ounce fabric shown here has not only been very popular for 
caps but has sold very largely to the cloak houses, particularly when made 
with warp of one color and filling of another, in all sorts of contrasts, from 
the ever popular black and white through the various shades of blues, 
browns and tans. The only difficulty in the manufacture of fabrics such as 
this, with contrasting colors in warp and filling, is to obtain even yarns and 
have weavers so well trained that there will be no light and heavy places 
across the piece, as these will show in the finished goods, oftentimes re- 
quiring an allowance. How to overcome this is a question much discussed 
among loom fixers and boss weavers. Some insist that such goods should 
never- be woven except on looms with positive take-up, while others are 
just as thoroughly convinced that better results can be obtained by the 
average weaver, with the conditional take-up. When putting the warp in 
the loom, the fixer should see that the beam heads are perfectly smooth, and 
put on new friction bands covered with graphite powder. See that the ar- 
bors of the beam are true, and that the take-up is working freely. Try to so 
adjust the take-up and friction that the picks will beat up a trifle, as the 
cloth will be much more even than would be the case if the picks went into 



116 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



the fell of the cloth with no beat. Full to 57 inches, wash, dry and shear 
lightly, brush and press. 





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Full Draft. 



Straight draw, twill to the right. 
Dressed: Plain color. 
Woven: Fancy mixes. 




Layout: 

1,360 ends, 14 picks. 
Reed: 

10— 2— 68 inches between listing. 
Warp: 

1,360 thr., 2 run 6.80 oz. 

Filling: 

14 picks, % run 13.00 oz. 

2 inches allowed for listing. 19.80 oz 

10% loom shrinkage 1.98 oz. 

Equal loom weight 21.78 oz. 



Heavy-Weight Cap Goods, 20 Ounce. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

50% medium grade wool @ 40c = $ .20 

50% medium grade shoddy @ 20c... = .1000 

16 )» .3000 
21.78 plus 15%. Per oz. $ .0188 

3.26 ounce. 

25.04 ounce @ $.0188 = % .4707 

14 picks = .1880 

Mill cost, per yard $ .6587 



MEN'S WEAR PENCIL STRIFES 

The illustration herewith shows two typical styles of pencil stripes for 
men's wear, which are extremely good representatives of this class of men's 
wear cloths in cross dyes. By a careful selection of the drugs used it is 
possible to color the worsted of the ground any desired shade without 
in any way changing the color of the silk threads used for the striping. 
There are several advantages in this method of manufacturing styles of 
this character, not the least of which is the fact that in so doing there 
is eliminated the necessity of dyeing the yarn in the skein, with the sub- 
sequent waste in winding and spooling. Not only is the colored waste of 
less value as a by-product, but yarns in the grey are stronger, making 
better weaving, and the operative has less strain on the eyes and is en- 
abled the more easilv to detect and remedy imperfections of various kinds 
as they may occur during the processes of manufacture. In order to pro- 
duce a fabric that shall be satisfactory in appearance and handle, it is 
necessary that the superintendent or purchasing agent have a 

Good Knowledge of Yarns, 
so that he may select those best adapted for the fabric to be manutactured. 
The finish required and the handle desired in different seasons vary very 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY U't 

materially, and the type of yarn used from time to time will be very 
prominent factors in securing the result that is the aim of every official 
of the concern, that is, a cloth that is good value can be produced in quan- 
tity, and will show a fair profit. The unwise selection of yarns is in many 
cases the cause of dissatisfaction thr oughout the mill, the winding is slow 
and difficult, the waste excessive, an d production far below what it should 
be, the usual result being that th e weavers are unable to earn wages 
commensurate with the labor involved, and an exceedingly high cost in the 




Two Typical Styles in Pencil Stripes for Men's Wear. 

finishing department, owing to the extra sewing required. It is simply an 
example of saving pennies and wasting dollars. An additional cent or 
two per pound in the price of the yarns would save several times that 
amount in the manufacturing cost per yard on the goods. 

In the examples shown here the worsted for the warp is 2-40s half- 
blood, 

Spun on the Bradford System, 

from tops made from a choice territory wool. The filling is the same size, 
but is dry spun, that is to say, is made on the French system. For many 
years manufacturers were strongly opposed to the use of French spun 
yarns in cloth for men's wear, but of late this prejudice bas been over- 
come to a considerable extent, and to-day many mills are using dry spun 
yarns in all their men's wear fabrics. There are several advantages, to 
be derived from the use of such yarns, one of the greatest being a 
slightly better handle in the goods made from French spun yarns of the 
same grade, or even from the identical top. To secure the best results 
in the finished goods it is necessary to begin at the grease wool, using care 
and judgment in every process of yarn manufacture as well as in handling 
the yarn during its conversion into cloth. The fleeces are opened by the 
sorter, given a shake to remove loose dirt and impurities, and then spread 
on the sorting bench where the different grades are separated and thrown 
into baskets. It is essential that this part of the work be done by skilled 
workmen, as each fleece may be separated into several grades, the various 
parts of the sheep having an entirely different character of wool. 
The finest part of the fleece grows on the shoulders 
and sides of the animal. Next in grade is that from 



118 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

the lower part of the back; third, that from the loins and back; 
fourth, that from the upper part of the legs and neck. Still lower in qual- 
ity is the wool from the lower neck and middle of the back, with the breast, 
belly and skirtings the lowest sort in the fleece. In the hands of a skill- 
ful sorter, the fleece is capable of being more finely subdivided than out- 
lined here, ten or eleven grades frequently being made from a single 
fleece. In scouring fine wools the use of a pure potash soap is strongly 
advised. The use of soda soaps or soda compounds of any kind should be 
prohibited in the cleansing of fine \v ools particularly, as the action of soda 
is injurious to the fibre, making it harsh to the touch, as well as detract- 
ing from its spinning qualities. The use of a pure potash soap, free from 
uncombined caustic alkali, will be productive of the best results. Tests 
should be made of all new lots of soap and alkali to see that they are free 
from impurities that may be injurious to the stock or that add to the cost 
without any increase of detergent properties. The scouring liquor should 
not be hot, a temperature of 120 to 125 degrees Fahrenheit is all that is 
needed to thoroughly cleanse the fibre, and irremediable damage may be 
done by excessive heat. 

Another Essential Feature in Wool Scouring 

is a supply of soft water. If this is not obtainable, it will be necessary to 
correct the hardness of the available supply by mechanical or chemical 
assistance. The wool need not be rinsed nor should it be thoroughly dry 
if the carding process is to immediately follow the scouring. The action 
of the cards on the moist fibre is much more gentle than on stock that 
is bone dry. The fibres in a moist condition are more pliable, less liable 
to break, and are combed out much more readily with a considerable lessen- 
ing of noil in the combing. A very common source of imperfect yarn is a 
worn covering on the top roll of the roving or reducing frames. Slugs are 
formed here which entail a vast amount of labor in the finishing room. 
All the top rolls should be inspected at least twice daily, all defective 
rolls removed and replaced by those in perfect condition. A very little 
time and expense here will save hours of expensive labor in later opera- 
tions. The 

Inspection of the Yarns 
in the spinning mill should not be hurried. A method which has many 
points in its favor is that used by one of our best mills. All yarns, even 
those to be delivered in the form of skeins, are first run onto jack spools 
at a slow rate of speed, enabling the operative to detect imperfections 
very readily as the yarns pass over the inspection board. By using a low 
rate of speed and a comparatively low number of ends, the inspection is 
practically perfect and the relatively higher cost of this close inspection 
is amply justified by the superior working of the yarn in subsequent op- 
erations as well as the greatly reduced expense of mending. The custom 
in nearly all mills making fabrics of this type is to dress on a dry frame 
and weave without sizing. The better way is to run through a slasher 
after dressing, as a sized warp will run better in the loom than one not so 
treated. It should not be necessary to dress the 

Silk on a Separate Beam 
if due care is used in the dressing department. The silk threads should 
be allowed to run with very little friction, as they are very much less 
elastic than the worsted and will cause considerable trouble in the weav- 
ing by excessive breakage if dressed too tight. In burling every knot 
must be raised on both sides of the cloth, all foreign matter, such as bits of 
dirt or chaff, removed in such a manner as to disturb the texture as little 
as possible. The sewers will replace all broken ends and picks, coarse 
threads or hard twist and remove the slugs. Scouring is an important 
part of the finishing of any type of fabric and is especially important in the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 119 

case of goods which are subsequently to be dyed. In the majority of 
cases of shady goods, the cause will be found, not in the dyehouse as is 
quite generally supposed to be the case, but in the finishing room, and in 
most cases the washing is the process at fault. It is impossible for the 
dyer to get level shades on goods containing dirt or soap. Worsted goods 
should not require severe treatment in the scouring, as they are com- 
paratively free from the dirt and grease usually found in 

Carded Woolens. 
A pure, neutral, palm oil soap should be used, built up with a pure alkali 
to a strength sufficient to saponify the oils contained in the goods. The 
goods should be run in the soap bath from 20 to 30 minutes, then washed 
off in warm water for 15 minutes followed by a rinsing for half an hour in 
clear cold water. After extracting, the goods should be rollad on a machine 
which will remove all wrinkles and stretch them slightly in width, allowing 
them to remain on the rolls over night. A process, more to be recommended 
than this, however, is the continuous crabbing, for which several makes 
of machines are on the market. Next morning the pieces may be unrolled 
and are ready for the dyehouse. The goods are usually colored in a kettle 
holding from six to ten pieces, but must not be overcrowded. Do not bring 
to a boil too rapidly, but allow ample time to secure complete penetration. 
After dyeing, rinse well in cold water, extract and dry. The hastening of 
the drying operation by means of excessive heat must be avoided, as it has 
a decided tendency to tinge the silk stripe a yellowish shade. Give a run 
on the polisher, brush, shear and press. After pressing, a run on the dewing 
machine will improve the handle very materially. After a final inspection 
the goods are ready for rolling up, and if the pieces have received the care 
and attention they should have in the various processes, the silk will be 
found clear white, with the beauty and luster improved rather than dimin- 
ished. 

LAYOUT. COST. 

4,828 ends; reed 18 — 4 = 67" -f- 1%" for .099 oz. silk + 3% waste = 1.01 

listing = 68%" over all. oz. @ $3.40 per lb = $ .0240 

72 picks. 11.81 oz. worsted + 5% waste = 

Dressing pattern: 12.43 oz. @ 96c. per lb = .7458 



2/48 white 16 16 32 

60/2 silk 2 2 Cost of stock $ .7698 

Cost of manufacturing, 72 picks.. = .3750 



34 



Net mill cost $1.1448 

CALCULATIONS. Selling price $1.42%; terms, 10-30. 

284 ends 60/2 silk = .vb oz. + 'I 

10% = .099 or. 

4,544 ends 2/48 = 5.4 oz. + 

10% = 5.940 oz. 

72 X 68.5 

'2 picks 2/48= = 5.870 oz. 

48X560-^2-4-16 

Loom weight 11.909 ox. 



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120 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



NEEDLE CORDS 



The manufacture of staple dress fabrics such as this is confined almost 
entirely to a few of our large corporations who specialize to a certain ex- 
tent on goods of similar construction. Only a few years since, buyers for 
our large department stores considered it necessary to buy the larger part 
of their high-texture dress goods in the foreign market, but of late domestic 
mills have given more attention to the production of such cloths, with the 
result that a large proportion of the business has been taken by American 
mills. The difficulty of weaving fine single yarns was probably the strong- 
est argument against attempting to produce such fabrics here, but improved 
methods and machinery, combined with increased skill of the operative, has 
enabled domestic manufacturers to produce results that in all respects are 
equal to those attained abroad. The needle cord derives its name from the 
peculiar effect produced by the weave used in interlacing the warp and 
weft, the fine ribs, in some cases as many as 24 to the inch, showing the 
appearance that might be expected to result from innumerable punctures 
with a needle. One of the great objections to turning the equipment of a mill 
to this class of fabrics is the fine spinning required, with the consequent 
smaller production per spindle, and the very much less yardage produced 
per loom, owing to the high number of picks per inch in part, and partially 
also to the slower speed at which it is necessary to operate the looms 
when weaving fine single warps. 

The yarns used must be well spun, free as possible from slugs and oth- 
er manufacturing imperfections. In order to avoid the breakage in weav- 
ing which would be caused by the interlacing of the fibres clinging to the 
yarn made on frames, the yarns used in fine fabrics of this character are 
invariably mule spun. This method of yarn manufacture produces a much 
smoother thread than can be made on frames by either cap or flier spin- 
ning. In addition to this, another process is added to the yarn making, that 
is, the 

Warp Yarns Are "Gassed" 

or singed. This operation consists of passing the thread between gas flames, 
so adjusted as to burn off the extending fibres without injury to the thread 
itself. The result is an extremely smooth thread which presents much less 
opportunity for chafing than one not so treated. 

The warps are run through the slasher, which gives them a coat of size, 
evenly distributed and thoroughly dried before the yarn is wound on the 
beam. Care must be taken to see that the drying is completed in the ma- 
chine or the entire warp will be spoiled. Should the yarn be moist as it 
winds on the beam, successive layers will become so matted together that 
it will be impossible to weave them off except with a maximum of labor and 
expense and with a great opportunity for the making of imperfect goods. 
The best sizing materials to use is a much-discussed question. Some mills 
will have nothing but the best fish glue used, while others find many of the 
prepared sizes on the market very satisfactory. To obtain the best results a 
size must be used which possesses the qualities of good penetration, strong 
adhesive powers and drying hard, still retaining a certain degree of elas- 
ticity, and one that will stand considerable chafing without pulverizing. 
Without such a size, the weaving of fine single warps becomes impractical, 
as no weaver could be found to operate the looms under conditions such 
as would then exist. 

The finishing of needle cords does not differ materially from the process 
used on a variety of clear-finished dress goods. The burling should be done 
carefully, all knots removed and slugs reduced. Scouring should be accom- 
plished by the use of a pure neutral soap built up to suitable strength with 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



121 



a mild alkali. After scouring, the pieces should go at once to the crabbing 
machine. For this work a 

Continuous Crab Is Preferable 
to either the single or double crab of the Yorkshire type. There are several 
reasons for this preference, as the operation is continuous and the machine 
does the work with less labor and expense. From the crab the goods should 
be rolled tightly on wooden rolls, covered with cotton cloth and allowed to 
stand for at least twenty-four hours, the rolls being turned end for end at 
intervals of not exceeding eight hours. 

The dyeing is done in the usual manner, the kettle holding from ten 
to sixteen pieces, according to the length of pieces and size of tub. It is 
unwise to crowd the kettle, as good results cannot be expected if the ma- 
chine is overloaded. When the correct shade is obtained, the dye liquor is 
drawn off, the goods cooled and rinsed in the kettle, then extracted and 
dried. After drying, the pieces are given a few runs on, the brush, then 
sheared or singed, brushed, inspected and pressed. For goods of this char- 
acter, or in fact any other class of goods, the old-style plate press will give 
superior results. 

LAYOUT. COST. 

4.992 ends; reed 13—6 = 64" 4- 1%* for 4 " 2 fi 6 „ ° z ^ +,. 5 % waste = 4 - 47 oz - ® t .... 

listing = 65V4" over all. . „ 8 . Sc - P er . lb - : •- = * -2459 

Kin »ir.ir« 6 - 24 oz - +3% waste = 6.42 oz. @ 

lbu picks. 9 6c. per lb = .3852 

CALCULATIONS. P 

4.992 ends 1/36 = 3.96 oz. 4- 7% Stock cost $.6311 

take-up = 4.26 oz. Manufacturing. 160 picks .= .6300 

65%X160 

160 picks 1/48 = ~ ..= 6.24 oz. Net cost $1.2611 

(48X560)-h16 • 

Loom weight 10.50 oz. • ■■■■□QBBDCDO 

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COTTON MIXTURE THIBETS 



The thibet is a fabric much used for overcoatings in the heavier weights, 
and may be made from pure wool, as are the higher grade cloths, or with a 
mixture of cotton, shoddy and wool, as is the usual custom in manufactur- 
ing the lower-priced cloths. Tbe appearance of the goods is somewhat 
similar to a melton, but has not the characteristic melton touch. The stock 
mixture must be governed to a great extent by the price at which it is in- 
tended to sell the finished goods, but it is essential that the materials used 
shall have sufficient felting properties to give a good cover to the face with- 
out excessive gigging or tender goods will result, one of the worst mishaps 
that can befall a mill. Imperfections of other kinds may be overcome to a 
certain extent or the goods sold as seconds at no great loss, but materials 
that are tender are practically impossible to dispose of at any price, except 
at their value as rags. 

The greater part of the thibets are either solid shades or mixtures, but 
occasionally they are used as the groundwork for a pencil stripe or other 
fancy pattern. The fabric is what might be termed a "finisher's cloth," that 
is to say, it has little indication as it comes from the loom of what it will 
become under treatment by a skilled finisher with an equipment of machin- 
ery such as is found in a modern woolen mill finishing room. As the goods 
- come from the loom they are of coarse, open texture, and to the ordinary 



122 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

observer it would seem well-nigh impossible for them to be so manipulated 
as to become the soft, smooth-faced fabric fit to clothe the most fastidious. 
For the production of the sample here described the stock mixture for the 
warp was made up of the following: 

20% cotton @ 16c = 3.2c. 

10% wool @ 40c = 4.0c. 

40% card waste @ 10c = 4.0c. 

30% coarse extract @ 12c = 3.6c. 

Total cost per pound 14.8c. 

The filling mixture should have a larger percentage of wool in order to 
secure the necessary felting properties but in the manufacture of a low-pric- 
ed fabric such as this, it is essential that the stock be secured at as low a 
price as is compatible with the results to be obtained. For the filling we will 
use a mixture made up of the following: 

15% wool @ 40c = 6.0c. 

15% cotton @ 16c = 2.4c. 

30% card waste @ 10c = 3.0c. 

40% coarse extract @ 12c = 4.8c. 

Total cost per pound 16.2c. 

The stock costs here given may look extremely low and lead one to 
think that the work will run badly through the mill, but such is not the 
case. With competent men in charge of the carding and spinning depart- 
ments, there will be no trouble in making a thread that will be strong enough 
to weave without any difficulty and secure an excellent production. 

In preparing lots of this character for the card room it will be found 
necessary to use more care than would be the case were the stock all wool 
of one or two grades. In order that the goods may full evenly and give no 
trouble in the dyeing, it is very essential that the various stocks should be 
blended into a homogeneous mixture. The lot should be laid out in the 
picker room in layers, containing as nearly as may be, without too much 
labor, the correct percentages of the various stocks. The oil should be put 
on the wool stock, as the cotton will absorb all that it requires from con- 
tact with the moist layers of woolen material. While it is a common practice 
to use a mineral oil as a lubricant for low-grade woolens, it is not to be 
commended. Mineral oils are not readily saponified, and there is possibil- 
ity of having considerable trouble in removing the oil during the finishing 
process. A much safer method of procedure is to 

Use Either a Lard or Red Oil, 
either of which will saponify without difficulty, and may be removed with 
detergents of a much less harsh character than would be required in the 
use of a mineral oil. The emulsion may be prepared by placing in a barrel 
two pails of water to each pail of oil and cutting the oil with borax or some 
mild alkali. The emulsion should be applied warm, about twelve quarts to 
the hundred pounds of stock, which will give an application of four quarts 
of oil. The stock should be run through the picker three times to obtain 
thorough mixing, or the lack of even distribution of the various stocks 
through the mixture may become the source of trouble in subsequent opera- 
tions. The cards should be in first-class condition, although many manu- 
facturers seem to think that low stock may be put through any sort of a 
machine and good results be obtained. 

It is a great mistake to attempt to make yarn from any kind of stock 
without first making certain that the equipment is in the best possible con- 
dition. The 

Carding of Short Stock 
requires no little skill and experience, as there is a strong tendency for the 
shoddy and card waste to leave the mixture, dropping under the cards, while 
the longer cotton and wool fibres are carried on by the clothing and cJon- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 123 

verted into roving. It may be necessary to change the setting of the cards, 
and to slow up the fancies if not the main cylinder to obviate too great a loss 
of the short stock. It is a decided advantage to have the cards doubled up 
for work of this kind, that is, to place the first and second breakers as near 
together as possible, interpolate a couple of extra rolls as conveyers which 
will take the stock from the first breaker doffer and carry it to the cylinder 
of the second breaker without the intervention of the Apperly feed. The 
roving should be made at least two-thirds the size of the yarn to be spun, 
as the stock will stand but a limited amount of draft. The warp yarn should 
be spun with the least amount of twist that will give the requisite strength, 
and should be right-hand twist. The filling may have considerably less 
twist, and must be spun to the left in order to obtain all the cover possible. 
Dress with no more tension on the spools than is necessary to give a fairly 
firm warp on the reel, as it is essential to retain all the 

Elasticity and Life 

possible in the yarns. It will prove advantageous to draw the warps on 
eight harnesses, thereby avoiding unnecessary crowding of the heddles and 
undue chafing of the threads during the process of weaving. 

It is a great mistake, and one frequently made, to think that all that is 
required of a loom fixer is to put the warp in the loom, fasten the harness 
straps, tie in the warp, adjust the reed and start the loom. This is all sim- 
ply preliminary work. After the heading has been woven and the broken 
ends tied in, the loom should be gone over with care to see that it is in the 
best possible shape to weave the particular fabric- it is desired to produce. 
Adjustments of various parts may be made, which, while seeming of little 
importance, may affect the production very materially. The point at which 
the shed closes, relative to the position of the reed, the timing of the har- 
ness motion cylinders, and the picking motion, are all minor details, but in 
total of extreme importance. The shuttles should have a thorough examina- 
tion, and all rough places gone over with sand paper, the points put in per- 
fect condition and the "brushes" adjusted so as to give the proper amount of 
friction on the fillings to prevent "runners" or filling drawing in at the sides. 
The picking motion should be set in such a manner that both sides of the 
loom pick together, or with possibly a slight lead on the head motion side. 
The height of the harnesses should be sufficient to allow the bottom shed to 
clear the race plate nicely, yet not high enough to throw out the shuttle or 
cause split bobbins. Should the reed be shorter than the reed space at either 
or both ends, fill in the space, if of any size with small pieces of reed, nicely 
adjusted, avoiding a too common trouble, that of having the shuttles fly out, 
which not only lowers production but is a source of danger to the operative. 

With well-made yarns the burling and mending will be a small item in 
the cost of finishing, but it must not be understood that the burling can be 
slighted. All knots should be raised on both sides of the goods, not pulled 
out or broken off too short, as such procedure will allow the ends to be 
drawn back in the fulling, leaving a "pin hole," which may not be detected 
except by looking through the goods. In order to 

Obtain a Well-Covered Face 
<on fabric constructed of low stock, such as we propose to use, it will require 
a run on the napping machine before fulling. It will appear to some of our 
finisher friends that this method is somewhat out of the ordinary, but the 
results obtained fully justify this procedure. This breaking up of the face 
in the grease before fulling will give a much better fabric than one finsihed 
in the ordinary manner. 

By this preliminary napping the fibres are put into much better condi- 
tion for felting during the fulling operation. In running the pieces into the 
mill start them with the nap pointing toward the rolls, as a much more 



124 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



closely matted surface will be obtained in this way. The soap will need 
to be full bodied, long lived, and well fortified with alkali to fully saponify 
the grease and oil contained in tbe low stock mixture. A combination of 
fifty per cent pure tallow and fifty per cent palm oil will be found to do the 
work nicely. We do not advocate the use of tallow soaps on goods which 
may be fulled in a short time, but for fabrics which require long, hard fulling 
they are practically a necessity, as palm oil soaps will not retain their vi- 
tality under these conditions. It is impossible to give a 

Hard-and-Fast Formula 

which will give perfect results on all kinds of goods, each finisher usually 
having certain proportions of soap and alkali which he has found to be well 
adapted for the stocks and fabrics manufactured by the mill in which he is 
employed. 

If the soap used is of the proper strength to hold the grease and dirt in 
suspension through the process of fulling, it is very probable that no addi- 
tional quantity will be required in the washer. The pieces should be taken 
directly from the mills to the washing machine and scoured with sufficient 
warm water to float them and rinse out the impurities. After twenty to thirty 
minutes in the suds the dirty liquor should be drawn off and the goods 
given a thorough rinsing, first with warm then with cold water, until every 
trace of soap has been removed. Extract for five minutes and place on the 
napper before sending them to the dyehouse. Thibets should not be nap- 
ped all one way, but the pieces should be reversed at about the middle of 
the operation. On the fabric here described three runs in each direction 
should be enough to give the desired amount of nap. 

The dyeing is accomplished by means of any good union dye, and plenty 
of time must be given to secure thorough penetration of the fibre. Do not 
overload the kettle or bring to a boil too rapidly or uneven goods may be 
the result. The goods must be cooled off and well rinsed before being re- 
moved from the dye kettle, then thoroughly extracted and dried. In 
drying, the 

Heat Must Not Be Excessive 

or the handle of the cloth will be seriously impaired. When dry, give the 
pieces a couple of runs on the brush, then shear to match the finish desir- 
ed. If the goods have been properly handled they will have a short thick 
nap with no threads visible. Give the pieces a final inspec- 



LAYOUT. 

2,800 ends; reed 10 — 4 = 70" 4- 1%" for 

listing = 71. 5" over all. 
10 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,800 ends 2% run = 10.18 oz. 4- 

5% , = 10.70 oz. 

71.5X40 

40 picks 3 run = = 9.53 oz. 

300 ■ 

Loom weight 20.23 oz. 

Finish* d weight 14-14y 2 oz. 

8 harness, straight draw. 

FRONT. 

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B ( ■■uLMaLJU 

U1I1UIM 

■IDIInDI 

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■■■□■Ma 
□■ ■■□■■■ 

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■■■DH*a 



COST. 

10.7 oz. warp + 25% shrinkage = 

14.27 oz. <w 14.8c. per lb = % .1278 

9.53 oz. filling + 25% shrinkage = 

12.7 oz. @ 16.2c. per lb = .1287 

% .2560 

Labor = .2000 

Incidentals = .1200 

Net mill cost $ .5760 

Profit = .0640 

Discount, commission and guar- 
antee .....= .1600 

Selling price $ .8000 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 125 

tion before brushing, and a run of steam before they 
are placed on the dewing machine. It will be found that a fairly heavy spray 
may be used to advantage before pressing, thereby improving both the han- 
dle and appearance of the goods. Run on the press with face to the cylin- 
der under fairly heavy pressure, give a light run of steam and the goods are 
ready for rolling up. 



ZIBELINE COATINGS 

The name zibeline is applied to many fabrics which are somewhat allied 
in appearance to the real zibeline, yet are made from entirely different 
stock and are easily detected as imitations. The present fall season's 
offerings of ladies' coatings are made up largely of fabrics under this 
name, while but few of them are rightfully entitled to it. The true zibe- 
line is a fabric with a straight, glossy nap which entirely obscures the 
weave, and a rich luster which closely approximates that of a glossy fur. 
The imitations are largely made of a coarse wool and, though finished 
in a similar manner, are entirely lacking in the rich glossy appearance 
which denotes the real article. The construction of these fabrics is very 
similar to that of the ordinary cheviot, the important difference being in 
the stock employed. In the cheviot a coarse wool is used which is more 
or less curly in its nature, while in the manufacture of the zibeline a per- 
centage of mohair is blended with the wool. Mohair is the fleece of the 
Angora goat, and is a long comparatively straight fibre, having a silky 
luster, which gives the finished goods a bright glossy appearance whicn 
it is impossible to attain with wool. There are several variations of the 
fabric which are popular this season, some in single cloths, others witn 
fancy backs in stripes or plaids, some with the face of a solid color, 




Zibeline Coating 

others with a distinct color pattern on both face and back of the goods. 
The style here first described is a single cloth of a solid color, probably 
woven in the white on the double loom system, with a warp of fine yarns 
in the second loom. The yarns are coarse and 

Require No Special Skill 
in their manufacture, though trouble may come in the spinning, if an attempt 



126 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



is made to spin with too much draft, owing to the slippery nature of the 
mohair fibre, due to the comparative lack of the imbrications or serra- 
tions peculiar to wool. The pieces are fulled and scoured as usual, then 
put on the wet gig to raise and straighten the nap. This operation is car- 
ried on while the goods are wet, as the tangled fibres are much more 
readily straightened out while rendered soft and pliable by the water. 

The wire napper is not as well adapted to this class of fabrics as the 
old-fashioned teasel gig which is not so harsh in its action. The 
gigging is all in one direction, as the desired result is a long straight 
nap. When the pieces are napped sufficiently they are placed on a w^t 
brush to thoroughly straighten out and lay the fibres close to the cloth. 
The roll on which the cloth is wound on this machine is a tube with many 
perforations, connected with pipes and valves which permit of forcing 
steam or water through the goods while rolled. The blowing of hot steam 
through the pieces followed by cold water sets the cloth and imparts 
an added luster. If piece dyes, the goods are now ready for the dye- 
house, and are usually colored in kettles holding from six to eight pieces. 
In coloring napped goods it is absolutely essential that the pieces run in 
the direction opposite to that in which the nap is laid in order to disturb 
it as little as possible. After drying the goods are examined for imper- 
fections, knots, etc., brushed well and run through the press, face to the 
bed. 



LAYOUT. 
1.564 ends; reed 11% — 2 = 
listing = 69%" over all. 
2S pioks. 



68" 4- 1%" for 



CALCULATIONS. 
1.564 ends 2% run = 6.256 oz. + 

7% = 

28X69% 

28 picks = ■ = 

250 
Loom weight 



STOCK MIXTURE. 

50% wool @ 40c. per lb = $.20000 

50% mohair noil @ 36c. per lb..= .18000 

Cost per lb = $ .38000 

Cost per ounce = .02375 

COST. 
14.48 oz. + 20% shrinkage = 18.1 

oz. @ $.02375 = $ .4299 

Manufacturing = .2850 



Mill cost 



$ .7149 



The novelty fabric here illustra 
face a zibeline with an ordinary wool 
of manufacture is practically the sa 



ted is a double cloth having for its 
en cloth for the back. The process 
me as for the piece-dye zibeline in 



+ 1%" for 



LAYOUT. 
2,520 ends; reed 9 — 4 = 70" 

listing = 71%" over all. 
28 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
840 ends 2/36 cotton = .89 oz. + 

10% take-up = .98 oz. 

1,680 ends 1% run = 13.44 oz. 4- 

10% take-up = 14.78 oz. 

28X71.5 

28 pioks 1% = = 15.28 oz. 

137.5 

Loom weight 31.04 oz. 

Finished weight 24 oz. 

COST. 
.98 oz. cotton + 5% waste = 1.03 

oz. @ 32c = $ .0206 

15.03 oz. mohair mixture + 20% 

waste = 18.8 oz. @ 34.8c = .4080 

15.03 oz. woolen mixture -t- 20% 

waste = 18.8 oz. @ 36.5c = .4287 



40% 
20% 


MOHAIR MIXTURE. 


:.— $ 


.128 
.080 


40% 


crossbred noil @ 35c 

WOOLEN MIXTURE. 


.140 


30% 


$ 

.- % 


.348 
.120 


70% 




.245 



$ .365 



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ua'-'nanmuaanauoum 

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BDflaanBDnaBnBQBfl 

BBDBBDBDB«BnaDBD 
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Manufacturing 
Mill cost . 



$ .8573 
.2856 



$1.1429 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 127 

the foregoing analysis, the chief element of difference in the two fabrics 
being the construction. The yarns used in the face of the double cloth are 
of the same mixture as used in the single cloth, and the yarns for the back are 
made entirely of wool. In the construction of fabrics of this type having 
the face and back of strongly contrasting colors, it will be found necessary 
to unite the two cloths by means of an extra warp in order to avoid 
having the back show through on the face, as would be very apt to occur 
if the back warp was interlaced with the face. The extra warp may be 
of worsted, as is customary with high-priced cloths, or of cotton, and 
should be interlaced in such a manner as to avoid having the interlacing 
form a pattern that is discernible on either side. In the cloth here de- 
scribed the stitch warp is of 2-36 cotton interlaced on a satin plan which 
hides it effectually. The stripe effect on the face of the sample is obtained 
by reversing the weave on two of the warp threads face and back, throw- 
ing the back to the face and vice versa, giving a clean cut stripe of the 
contrasting colors. 

The particular pattern here described would be the most expensive 
of the range, as the white back will not permit of using any shoddy. In 
the darker colors the stock for the back warp and filling can be manipu- 
lated so as to reduce the cost materially. 



FANCY BACK PRUNELLA 



This is one of the modern variations of an ancient and well-known cloth, 
one possibly as familiar to our grandmothers as the serge is to the present 
generation. In recent years this fabric has had but little vogue as a costume 
cloth and has been used to a great extent for shoe tops. Its name is derived 
from the French prunelle, a plum, presumably from the color it most com- 
monly bore in early times. Some years ago it was a much esteemed fabric, 
and was used for many purposes which in these times require a much finer 
fabric of higher texture and more expensive construction. It possesses wear- 
ing qualities that surpass those of many more expensive cloths and is warm 
without being bulky. The example here described is made with worsted 
face warp and filling, with a two-ply cotton back in stripes one-sixth of an 
inch wide, alternate black and white. The weave employed is the seven- 
harness satin for both back and face, one being the reverse of the other. In 
a construction of this kind it would be perfectly feasible to use a cotton fill- 
ing also, as the weft is entirely concealed from view by the close texture 
and clever interlacing of the warp. The goods may be woven in the grey 
and piece dyed by a selection of dyes that will not stain the cotton while 
coloring the worsted threads, and is the method usually used, as it retains 
the waste in the white, a much more valuable form of by-product and one 
more readily salable than is colored thread waste. The yarns used for the 
face warp are not of fine grade, nor particularly fine counts, the stock used 
being a 

Three-Eighths Blood Missouri Fleece 
spun to 2-40s for the warp and single 36s for filling. The apparently great 
discrepancy in texture does not result in such a poorly-balanced cloth as 
might be supposed, but has a tendency to accentuate the desired characteris- 
tic of the fabric, that is, to make it a more decided warp cloth, if that be 
possible. In fabrics of high texture, both in warp and filling, the prunella 
becomes practically a repellant, and is susceptible of being made waterproof 
with comparatively little treatment. Its fine, close, smooth surface renders 
it a particularly useful fabric in the manufacture of shoe tops and gaiters, 



128 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

and for these purposes there is no type of cloth manufactured which will 
give the same service for the price. With warp yarns made from long-staple 
wool that has received careful treatment in all the processes of manufac- 
ture the fabric will give such long service that one will readily understand 
the derivation of one of its common names, "everlasting." 

In the finer grades the warps are made from 2-48s half-blood stock, 
with a relatively higher texture, and the filling is made from combed Sea 
Island cotton, making a fabric that is extremely fine with a soft, firm face 
and wearing qualities that are hard to excel. The manufacture of these 
goods is not attended with any particular difficulty and should show good 
profits. The comparatively high texture of the weft has a tendency to re- 
duce the production to a certain extent, although this is overcome some- 
what by the fact that the cotton back-warp improves the weaving consider- 
ably. To secure the best possible results 

It Would Be Well To Size the Warp, 
particularly if the yarns are flyer- spun, as there will be a much less break- 
age of the warp yarns in weaving, a material aid in obtaining production, 
and also will save a considerable amount of time and expense in the subse- 
quent finishing operations, especially in the sewing and mending depart- 
ments. In several of our leading department stores the fancy back prunella 
is offered for suiting purposes, and is said to be meeting with no little suc- 
cess as a fabric for automobile wear in the chilly days of early fall, before 
it becomes necessary to don the heavier mackinaws and furs that have be- 
come the usual garments for cold weather riding. As an outer coat it is 
warm, not bulky, and can be easily tailored into a variety of styles not pos- 
sible to attain with fabrics more clumsy in construction. The fancy back 
gives the tone so much desired in garments for this purpose and the close 
face does not hold the dust which so readily accumulates in the rougher fac- 
ed cloths. The process of manufacture is similar to that employed in the 
production of clear-finished men's wear fabrics. The greater portion of 
goods of this type are manufactured by mills having the necessary machin- 
ery for 

Spinning Their Own Worsted Yarns, 
a very considerable saving in the cost of production. The majority of such 
mills purchase much of their wool directly from the grower, thereby effect- 
ing a saving of the profit usually taken by the dealer, and giving them a de- 
cided advantage over the mill with a limited capital, which must of neces- 
sity buy in smaller quantities, and, in many cases, at a considerably higher 
price. In times of hard competition it is the small savings of this sort that 
make up the greater portion of the limited margin of profit it is possible to 
obtain. The mill equipped with an up-to-date spinning plant in connection 
with its weaving machinery is in much better position to fix prices than its 
competitor that must purchase yarns in the open market, paying the spin- 
ner a profit over his fixed charges and operating expense. In making yarns 
for this class of fabrics it is not necessary to sort the wool as closely as 
would be the case in manufacturing yarns for men's wear, in fact, in some 
dress goods mills the graded fleeces are made into but three sorts, or two 
sorts and the skirts. The shrinkage of these wools is light, as is the per 
cent of noil made. In scouring, it is essential that there should be nothing 
but pure materials and soft water used. The use of 

Soda Soaps Is Not Advisable, 
although it is very true that the action of soda compounds is not nearly as 
harmful on low-grade wools as it is on the finer staples. The scouring 
liquor should be prepared by first boiling the detergents to be used in a 
suitable tank that they may be dissolved and thoroughly mixed. This makes 
a stock solution from which the scouring liquor may be made up with ease 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY _ 129 

and accuracy. A very satisfactory formula for the stock tank is eight ounces 
of soap and four ounces of alkali per gallon of water. In preparing the 
scouring liquor in the wool-washing machine use four gallons of the stock 
solution to each hundred gallons of water; if additional alkali is indicated, 
it should first be dissolved in warm water then added to the bath. The sec- 
ond and third bowls of the macliine should have less of the stock solution 
and the fourth bowl a very weak bath. 

It is very essential that the detergents used contain no free caustic al- 
kali, as this has a very injurious effect on the wool fibre. It may be that 
exception will be taken to the use of a soap liquor in the final bowl of the 
scouring machine, but many years' experience has amply proven that wools 
for worsted combing should not be rinsed in clear water, as is the custom 
with clothing wools. The light amount of soap carried by the fibre acts as a 
lubricant in the subsequent process of carding. The amount of noil made in 
combing stock of this grade should be very small, not over ten per cent at 
the most, and the entire shrinkage from clean wool to top should not ex- 
ceed 12y 2 per cent. In the further processes of manufacture it will be neces- 
sary to use good judgment as to draft, and care must be taken to see that 
the top rolls are in good condition. A great many of the imperfections in 
worsted yarns are due to defective top rolls, a slight unevenness here allow- 
ing the sliver to pass through without being acted upon in the proper man- 
ner, causing a bunch or slug that must be removed later with attendant la- 
bor and expense. 

In no part of the process of manufacture is there a greater exemplifica- 
tion of the truth of the old saw that "an ounce of prevention is better than 
a pound of cure." The rolls on every machine should be examined at least 
twice daily, those that are imperfect being removed and replaced with new- 
ly-covered, smooth rolls. This may appear to be a small item, a "mere 
trifle," but it is strict attention to these 

Trifles that Bring the Perfection 

which should be the aim of everyone from bobbin boy to manager. The 
spinning and twisting of the warp yarn should be followed by a rigid in 
spection of the finished yarn before it goes to the spooler. The removal of 
defects here may mean the saving of allowances on the finished goods, and 
is effected with much more ease while the yarn is free than when woven 
tightly into cloth. Especial care should be given to the roving frames, re- 
ducers and spinning frames used in the production of the filling yarns, as 
these are used direct from the spinner bobbins, allowing no opportunity for 
inspection or removal of imperfections before they are in the woven goods. 
The dressing is done on a dry frame, preferably, as the time gained in 
this way is a considerable item, the sizing on the slasher not only taking 
much less time but also being much more even, giving better results in the 
weave room in the way of production and even warps. The equipment of the 
looms with some form of 

Warp Stop Motion Is Strongly to be Recommended, 
as it allows the weaver to devote practically his whole time and attention 
to the filling and guarding against defects of various kinds. It may be said 
that there should be no necessity for such an appliance, but it is a device 
that will soon repay its cost in increased production and practical elimina- 
tion of long threads out, which are a source of no little expense in the fin- 
ishing department. The burling and sewing are not difficult, but should be 
performed with care, every knot raised both sides of the goods, threads out 
sewed in and slugs reduced or replaced with perfect yarn. In using single 
filling it must be well conditioned before attempting to use it in the shuttle 
or there will be a great deal of trouble from succeeding picks looping round 
the loose thread between the listing and the shuttle box, drawing the 



130 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

doubled thread into the shed, a very common form of imperfection. The 
means of preventing this usually in vogue are either steaming the yarn to 
set the twist or a hot-air treatment which gives approximately the same re- 
sult. The use of 

Heavier Brushes in the Shuttles 
is not to be recommended, as this places an undue amount of tension on the 
yarn and has a tendency to make the goods have a "teethy" appearance, as 
well as being a prolific source of broken picks, a form of imperfection which 
should be eliminated if possible. In scouring, it should not be necessary to 
use a strong soap, as the goods contain very little in the way of impurities 
aside from the slight amount of oil, applied in the yarn making, and the 
size used in the dressing room. A pure palm oil soap fortified with a suf- 
ficient quantity of pure alkali to saponify the oil contents should give very 
satisfactory results. The use of a strong alkali soap is not only unneces- 
sary but absolutely harmful in the extreme. In fact, the use of harsh al- 
kali in any process of woolen or wortsed manufacturing is inexcusable and 
should not be allowed under any. circumstances. Before dyeing, the goods 
would be much improved by a run through the 

Continuous Crabbing Machine, 
a process which will put the goods in much better condition for subsequent 
operations and remove the danger of wrinkles showing in the finished 
goods. If the treatment of the pieces in the wet finishing has been what 
it should be in every particular, it is not at all likely that the dyeing will 
be attended with any difficulty. The most prolific source of shady goods is 
the wet finishing department, not the dyehouse, as so many of our superin- 
tendents and managers seem to think. The pieces should be run into a ket- 
tle large enough to hold them without undue crowding with sufficient 
water to submerge the entire quantity of goods, aside from the portion 
necessarily lifted from the bath during its passage over the reel. If care 
is taken to have the piping so arranged that the heating of the bath is prac- 
tically alike in all parts of the tub the results should be as nearly perfect 
as it is possible to attain in this world of imperfections. 

In case it is necessary to add dyestuffs to procure the shade desired, the 
bath should be allowed to cool or the results will be far from satisfactory. 
The tales of shading colors that may be safely added at the boil should not 
receive too implicit confidence, or it may be that there will be a sudden 
change of dyers as a result of such faith. Even with the best of drugs and 
the greatest care there are poor results at times, and no chances should be 
taken that are avoidable. In making a test for shade it is 

Advisable to Dry the Sample 
and run it through the press before matching, so that it may have as nearly 
as possible the same treatment as was accorded the reference sam- 
ple in the limited time at the disposal of the dyer. The necessity for this 
is readily appreciated by anyone who is familiar wit 1 * the change in ap- 
pearance of many colors during the finishing process. SI wld the shade prove 
satisfactory, the pieces should be cooled off, thoroughly rinsed, extracted and 
dried. The operation of drying is usually accomplished by means of artificial 
heat in some form of drying machine, one of the most approved being the 
horizontal chain dryer, with low feed and attachments that enable one op- 
erative to attend to the feeding of the cloth. 

The selvages of the goods are engaged by steel or brass pins set at in- 
tervals of about a quarter of an inch in the links of endless chains which 
carry the goods between steam-heated coils, thus hastening the drying, while 
the goods are tentered by the chains which are held at a fixed distance 
apart by means of suitable guides and sprockets. If necessary to increase the 
output of the dryer, it is advisable to add a section rather than to increase 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



131 



the heat, as excessive heat has an injurious effect on the wool fibre. The dry 
pieces should be brushed, sheared both sides, brushed a second time, inspect- 
ed, any damages that are found repaired, sprayed, and are then ready for 
the press. The press should be hot, not merely warm, and not speeded too 
high. The finish resulting from too high speed of the press is very eva- 
nescent, and a second run will be necessary to secure permanent results, en- 
tailing a waste of time and additional labor. Allow the pieces to cool off on 
the rolls, spray, inspect and roll up. Goods so treated will have a finish that 
will remain for a considerable length of time, and will not water spot. 



LAYOUT. 
10,528 ends; reed 16 — 10 = 65.8" + 

listing = 67.J" 
70 picks. 

Dressed: 
( 1 
U 
51 
U 



16X 

16X 



over all. 



2/40 white worsted. 

2/48 white cotton. 

2/40 white worsted. 

2/48 black cotton. 



CALCULATIONS. 
5,264 ends 2/40 worsted = 7.52 oz. 

+ 5 % take-up = 

5,264 ends 2/48 cotton = 4.18 oz. 

+ 5% take-up = 

70X67.3 
70 pks. 1/32 wstd.= = 



Loom weight 



C»2X560)h-16 



7.900 oz. 
4.389 oz. 
■ 4.260 oz. 
16.549 oz. 



COST. 
7.9 oz. worsted 4- 5% waste = 8.29 

oz. @ S4c. per lb = $ .445 

4.389 oz. cotton -f- 5% waste = 4.6 

oz. @ 40c. per lb = .115 

4.26 oz. worsted + 3% waste =4.39 

oz. @ 78c. per lb = .214 

Cost of stock 

Manufacturing, 70 picks 

Net mill cost 



$ .774 

.375 

$1,149 



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mamtmaaamamama 



WORSTED DIAGONALS 



Diagonals, or wide wales as they are frequently termed in the trade, 
have been extremely popular with the cutting-up trade for the past two 
seasons. They are developed both in piece-dyes and fancies for men's 
wear and dress goods in a great variety of colors and weights. Their manu- 
facture requires no special equipment unless it is desired to produce styles 
which need more harnesses than are to be found available in some of our 
mills. Many of the recent additions to the weaving equipment of our wor- 
sted mills have been 

Thirty-Harness 
looms, and with this type of machinery the designer will be able to produce an 
extremely varied line of diagonals. The fabrics vary in texture somewhat from 
the ordinary fancy worsted, there being a seeming disproportion between the 
threads of warp and filling, the warp having a relatively low number of ends 
with a higher number of picks for the same weight. The expense of man- 
ufacturing tin's type of fabric is somewhat higher than the ordinary twilled 
worsteds for two reasons: First, the cost of weaving is increased on account 
of the higher filling texture, and production is smaller, which naturally in- 
creases the overhead charges per yard. By means of combination twills the 
designer is enabled to produce diagonals on the ordinary harness loom that 
apparently require a jacquard loom for their manufacture. The method of 
procedure for manufacturing this class of diagonals is not intricate, and 
should be familiar to every designer on worsteds for men's wear or dress 
goods. A single example should be sufficient to make the principle so clear 
that there will be no difficulty in working out a great variety. 

For use in our illustration we have selected a twill complete on 20-har- 



132 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



ness A and one repeating on thirty-harness B; each will repeat evenly on 
sixty bars. In making the combination twills we use the first warp end of 
A, the second of B, third A and fourth B, proceeding in this manner until 
we have used every alternate end in each chain. By cross drafting they 
are reduced to a working basis in chain C, and the accompanying drawing-in 
draft: 



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WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 133 



A serpentine effect in diagonals may be easily obtained by drawing part 
of the warp threads two on one harness, which will give the same wavy ap- 
pearance as would be produced by the use of a combination of a 63-degree 
twill with one of 45 degrees. The style for which the chain is bere given 
may be developed in piece-dyes or with warp and filling of contrasting skein- 
dyed yarns or mixtures. If good taste is used in the selection of colors, the 
result will be a very pleasing effect. The yarns used are 2-40s half-blood 
in two shades of brown mix, the warp dressed with 4,500 ends of the darker 
mix, the lighter shade being used solid for the filling, 74 picks per inch. The 
ends are drawn straight on 28 harnesses. 



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134 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Another series of patterns may be made with solid warp and two or 
three colors of filling, which give some very nice suiting styles, full par- 
ticulars for such an arrangement following. With a little ingenuity the de- 
signer will be able, by aid of these suggestions, to develop a very creditable 
line of styles. The layout here given is for a diagonal drawn straight on 20 
harnesses: 



LAYOUT. 
4,600 ends 2/40 black; reed 14 — 5 = 65.7" 

+ 1.3" for listing = 67" over all. 
88 picks per inch. 

Filling: 

1 maroon. 
8 brown. 
1 maroon. 
14 black. 

24 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
4,600 ends 2/40 = 6.57 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 7,22 oz. 

88X67 

88 picks --= = 8.42 oz. 

40X560H-2-f-16 ■ 

Loom weight 15.64 oz. 

Plus 7% waste = 1.17 oz. 

16.81 oz. 

COST. 

16.81 oz. @ $1 = $1,050 

Manufacturing = .514 

Mill cost $1,564 



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CHINCHILLA 



The chinchilla is a fabric especially adapted for use as an overcoating. 
It is made in a variety of weights and colorings with solid color or fancy 
backs. The present season's demand for the heavier weights in men's over- 
coatings is largely for goods with plain backs, while for ladies' wear the 
fabrics are somewhat lighter in weight with plaid backs predominating. The 
manufacture of these cloths is a very large factor in the business of several 
of our mills, and by their policy of keeping their deliveries up to a high 
standard of excellence have succeeded in building a reputation on their spe- 
cial cloth which is an extremely valuable asset. 

A glance over the offerings for the present fall season reveals an ap- 
parently endless array of colors, weights and prices. From the very bulky 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 135 

three-ply cloths in expensive fabrics suitable for the severest winter weather, 
the weights and prices range down the line to a comparatively light-weight 
single cloth in three-quarter width, made by a concern whose output but a 
short time since was the humble but very useiul satinet. The fact that the 
majority of chinchillas are made in weights of from twenty-four to thirty- 
six ounces gives the skilled manipulator of stocks an almost unlimited op- 
portunity to use his knowledge. Many of the fabrics are made with wool 
for face and back, with a considerable part of the weight added to the goods 
by means of a third cloth between these two that does not show in the 
slightest degree on either side. It is one of the most desirable and satis- 
factory cloths that has yet been produced for overcoating and cloaking pur- 
poses. While not extremely difficult to make by those accustomed to its 
fabrication and finishing, there are many manufacturers who have failed in 
the attempt to produce a satisfactory cloth. 

There are few fabrics which change their appearance during the fin- 
ishing as much as does the chinchilla. As it comes from the loom it is a 
coarse, thready cloth, with a face that is flat and somewhat loosely woven. 
With the proper machinery, under the direction of a skilled finisher, a trans- 
formation takes place that is but little short of marvelous. The only 

Special Machinery 

required for the manufacture of these cloths is in the finishing room, the 
one machine without which the making of chinchillas is impracticable, if 
not an utter impossibility. It can also be used for the production of other 
types of finish, the stock used varying with the price of the goods and also 
to a certain degree with the finish wanted, that is, the size of the "nub" or 
spiral. The face must have sufficient staple to form a thick, long nap in 
the gigging operation without loosening the fibre from the goods. The stuf- 
fing and back may be of relatively cheaper material, except in the case of 
plaid backs of fine texture, which will require comparatively fine spun 
yarns and stocks suitable for their manufacture. 

The sample selected for analysis is a solid mixture, back and face the 
same color and stock, the shade being obtained with 10 per cent white and 90 
per cent black. To get an even distribution of so small a percentsge of 
white in the mixture will require more than ordinary care in the picking. 
The best method to pursue in making mixtures of this kind is to first mix 
the white with an equal amount of black, running it twice through the pick- 
er, then proceed in the usual manner, using four times the quantity of black 
for the alternate layers with one part of the black and white mixture. 
Goods oi this character need comparatively little 

Burling and Mending, 
the heavy nap required for the nub effect in finishing obscuring the weave 
entirely, and threads out or broken picks will not be noticed in the finished 
cloth. The fulling will not be a lengthy operation, as the goods are loosely 
woven and will felt easily, but a good soap must be used, one that will re- 
tain its life during the fulling and will scour out readily. After washing, the 
pieces should be well extracted and taken to the gig or wire napper. The 
napping operation is carried on while the goods are damp, because the wool 
when moist is more soft and flexible. In this condition it is possible to 
raise the nap with less waste of stock than can be done in dry napping. 
When the nap is sufficient for the desired finish, the goods are dried in the 
usual manner and taken to the curling machine. This is the principal fea- 
ture in the finishing of chinchillas. 

The essential parts of the machine are two beds, between which the cloth 
is drawn. The lower bed is usually covered with Brussels carpet, the lower 
face of the upper bed, the rubbing surface, being covered with rubber. By 
means of eccentrics on the verticle shaft a rotary motion is imparted 



136 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

to the upper bed which curls the nap into spirals or nu'^s. The 
size of the spirals may be changed to a certain extent by increasing or de- 
creasing the throw of the eccentrics. The goods require no shearing or 
pressing in the majority of cases, although occasionally the pieces are crop- 
ped to regulate the length of the spiral. In the sample here described the 
face and back warps have the same number of threads in each and they are 
of the same size. In plaid-back goods it will oftentimes be found that the back 
cloth has a texture double that of the face in order to secure a fine, neat 
looking cloth which will take the place of a lining in the garment. Usually 
the face and back are united in such a manner as to allow the two cloths 
to be separated without much trouble, so that for trimming lapels, cuffs, 
etc., the cloth can be reversed and the face cut away, making a less bulky 
and very neat finish. This is ordinarily accomplished by the use of an entirely 
distinct system of warp ends, usually termed the stitching warp, and is gen- 
erally of worsted for the better grades of goods. 

LAYOUT. COST. 

3,600 ends; reed 12% — 4 = 72" 4- 1%" for 60% wool @ 40c = 24.0c. 

listing = 73y 2 " over all. 40% shoddy @ 16c = 6.4c. 

36 picks. 



Cost of stock per pound... 
CALCULATIONS. 2 9.0S oz. + 20% waste = 36.3 oz. 



3,600 ends 2% run = 16 oz. + 10% 30.4c. per lb = $ .6897 

take-up 36X78 5 = 17.60 oz. 6sg7 + _ % shHnkage , n finishing = $ -7240 

36 picks 2i,i run = — = 11.48*oz. Manufacturing, 36 picks + 5%...= .3680 

225 ■ 

Loom weight 29.08 oz. Net cost $1.0920 

Finished weight 23-24 oz. 
Finished width 66". 

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One of the most popular of this type of fabrics is the 
Cut Chinchilla, 
now showing in a range of bright colors suitable for sport coats as well as 
in a line of mixtures and solid shades for men's wear. The "cut" or striped 
effect is produced by dressing in the warp at regular intervals threads of 
cotton or other hard-twisted yarns, which are so interlaced with the filling 
as to bind it closely to the face of the fabric and prevent the formation of 
the floats necessary to produce the long nap formed into nubs by the ac- 
tion of the chinchilla machine. The larger part of these cloths are of double 
cloth construction with fancy backs, making a pleasing contrast to the rela- 
tively plain face. From the layout and drafts given as examples of the 
plain-faced chinchilla the designer will have no difficulty in laying out any 
number of styles in plaid or plain-backed goods. It is very essential that 
the fundamental idea be kept in mind, that is, stock long enough to form a 
long, full nap interlaced in such a manner that the napping machine can 
tease out the fibre without injuring the structure of the fabric. 



AIL-WOOL TMEFS 

During the period of its popularity the thibet was a much abused cloth. 
It was made in almost all conceivable qualities, and many of the fabrics were 
more like cheviots than thibets, owing to the fact that many manufacturers' 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 137 

were tempted to make a thibet cloth, and as they were not experienced in 
such materials they used too coarse wools and shoddies, the consequence 
being that their cloths were not felted and gave a raw and thready appear- 
ance — a "raw cloth" with a finish even more "raw," and any garment made 
up from such a fabric could not be kept clean. It seemed as though it had 
a strong affinity for all the dust and lint in its vicinity, which stuck to it 
like a burr, and resisted all efforts to brush it off, for which reason it soon 
lost its popularity, as hardly anyone would buy a second suit of thibet cloth. 

A properly-constructed thibet, having the right quality of stock and fin- 
ished correctly, will not show the above defects, but can be kept as free 
from dust and lint as a fine undressed worsted. The writer has seen criti- 
cal buyers testing thibet cloths by crushing a quarter of a yard in their 
hands and then throwing it on the floor, giving it all possible opportunity 
to get covered with dust and lint, then shaking the sample to see how much 
of the dirt still remained sticking to it. The fabric which emerged in the 
cleanest state after such treatment was usually adopted as a standard of 
finish. 

In the quality of stock used and in the manufacturing processes it is 
very similar to a melton cloth in that it requires a good felting wool that will 
felt down into the bottom of the cloth and make a smooth, soft face. Let 
the wool or the shoddy get the least trifle coarse and it will "hair up" on 
the face instead of felting down, and the result is more like a cheviot or a 
mongrel cloth, and it was these mongrel cloths that spoiled the trade in 
thibets. A thibet cloth requires considerable fulling both in length and 
width, but care should be taken that it does not become too solid and boardy, 
as the finished cloth should handle "clothy" but without any "bone" to it. 

It should also show an indistinct twill effect, or, as it is called in Eng- 
land, a 

"Blind Twill," 

meaning indistinct like an undressed worsted. In this it is dissimilar to the 
melton cloth, which should not show any twill or weave effect. Hence the 
weaves used in meltons are those which produce a smooth, plain face, while 
the ones usually selected for a thibet are those which show an indistinct 
twill, as previously noted. It is true that some light-weight thibets are made 
in a plain weave, but they are made so with a view of cheapness, as larger 
yarns can be used and consequently more shoddy and fewer picks per inch, 
thus yielding a larger production with decreased overhead expenses. 

All-wool goods of this fabric, that is commercially all wool, require to 
be laid wide in the loom, usually for shoddy mixtures 80 to 84 inches wide 
in the reed, while the cotton carded mixtures are laid narrower, according 
to the proportion of cotton in the mixture. It requires considerable experi- 
ence in fulling to know just how wide to lay such goods, as everyone knows 
that there are no fulling properties in cotton, and if laid too wide and the 
finisher attempts to force the fulling in order to get the pieces up to the 
required width the result may be disappointing, as the fabric will handle 
stiff and boardy. The width for setting cotton mixtures in the reed is large- 
ly a matter of experiment, as it is hardly possible to determine beforehand 
the fulling properties of the shoddies, and then again the amount of twist 
in the yarns is a great factor in fulling. 

In former articles on similar heavy fulled cloths we have mentioned that 
it is necessary to use a good heavy-bodied soap in the fulling, having suffi- 
cient free alkali to overcome any acid that may be left in the shoddy stock 
through lack of proper care in neutralizing. The soap must also be strong 
enough to saponify the oils used in oiling the stock at the picker room, for 
unless there is a thorough saponification of all grease or oil in the goods 



138 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

there cannot be proper fulling and felting of the cloth. In addition to all the 
above, it is desirable to avoid any- 
Extreme Heat 
during the fulling process, because if the goods become too warm they will 
shrink quickly without getting the necessary felting. A temperature that 
is just warm to the hand is about right, and the moisture — soap solution — 
should be so that when you take a part of the cloth and wring it hard in 
your hands the soap solution will show up on the surface of the cloth. 

When the fulling is completed, time should be given for a gradual cool- 
ing of the fabric, and in as open a state as possible, because if allowed to 
lie in a heaped condition between the fulling and the scouring there is dan- 
ger, especially in warm weather, of a slight degree of formulation, which 
should be avoided. Warm water should always be used at first when wash- 
ing off the fulling soap and dirt, which is now in a loose condition, and a 
good rinsing with warm water will free the goods very quickly. It will be 
necessary to give them another soaping, and if clean the suds will show up 
white and the soap foam will almost fill up the washer bowl. After this sec- 
ond soap bath is rinsed off it is a good plan to use a few pails of a solution 
of monohydrate soda standing 2y 2 per cent Twaddell, or carbonated am- 
monia solution. 

Some finishers prefer to use a few quarts of aqua ammonia, as it is 
easier to handle. One alkali is as good as another, and a finisher can use 
whichever he finds the most convenient. The object in using this alkali 
solution is to raise and emulsify any residue of soap not washed out in the 
previous rinsing, and insure the goods being thoroughly clean. Wash off 
this alkali with warm water, and use cold water for the final rinsing, which 
will set or solidify the cloth. 

Carbonizing. 

This process is for the purpose of destroying all vegetable or other for- 
eign matter in the goods, which if left in the cloth would show up as 
"specks" and necessitate the tedious process of specking by hand, that is, 
picking out every little speck or loreign natter bv he usp if i n ins I "■> s 
which are made like sharp-pointed tweezers. This is a slow and expensive 
process, but by the use of chemicals in the soaking tank and the necessary 
heat in the carbonizing machine all vegetable and foreign matter is com- 
pletely destroyed. The soaking tank should be lined with lead, the hydro 
extractor basket made of copper, and all metal parts both inside and nut- 
side of the extractor sheet should be coated with paraffine or shellac, other- 
wise the carbonizing acid would soon destroy the iron. 

The operative should be supplied with rubber gloves and apron, as the 
acid eats its way into almost everything with which it comes in contact, 
and should be handled with care. The acid or wet process is usually used 
in carbonizing piece goods. A bath is made up in the soaking tank with 
water and sulphuric acid to test about 4V 2 degrees B., and the goods are 
allowed to remain in the tank until thoroughly saturated. They are then 
put through squeeze rolls, the liquor running back into the tank, then ex- 
tracted and run through the baking or carbonizing machine at 200 degrees 
Fahrenheit, which effectually destroys all burrs and foreign matter. Many 
mills do not have a baking machine, but hang the goods up in a baking 
room, which is heated to the necessary temperature. After baking, the goods 
should be run in a dry fulling mill, which will break and pulverize all the 
vegetable matter into a fine dust. 

Dyeing. 

After dyeing to shade and given a good rinsing the goods should be run 
in a solution of Fuller's earth. This is a peculiar kind of clay which has 
been used for many years in the finishing of fine woolens and worsteds. It 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 139 

has great cleansing properties and has a softening action on woolen goods. 
It is used in nearly all fine piece goods mills to remove all traces of loose 
dyestufts. and prevents "cr ck ng or s utting,' w ch is t'rea e ly t un 1 
in the cheaper grades of piece-dyed fabrics. It is cheaper to use and much 
superior to soap, as it will not mat or felt the fine nap the way that soap 
is very apt to do. 

There are many finishers to-day who have never used this earth, and 
therefore know nothing of its softening and cleansing properties, but it is 
much appreciated by all who have ever used it, especially the refined ar- 
ticle, which is much preferable to the crude earth. No one should attempt 
to use more of the earth than the water will hold in suspension without fre- 
quent stirring. A good proportion to use is two pailfuls of the refined earth 
to a barrelful of water, and allow six pails of this solution to four pieces of 
goods, run from 20 to 31 minutes and then rinse off in cold water. 

After being extracted the pieces should be rolled up on a roll under 
heavy pressure and allowed to stand for at least 24 hours. This "feeds" 
the cloth, giving it a more mellow handle. Regarding 

Moisture in the Wool, 
whether after scouring in the raw state or after being made up into cloth, is ' 
a process that is not given sufficient attention in the average mill, but every- 
one who has given any consideration to the subject knows that wool after 
being subjected to the action of alkalies and the heat in drying should be 
stored in a moist, cool room for a few days to allow it to regain its normal 
condition before being put through the picker. Such wool will card better 
and spin to finer counts with less manufacturing waste than similar wools 
not so conditioned. Most mill agents and treasurers are so anxious to get 
the goods finished up and into the market that they will not listen to any 
suggestions of letting goods lie for a day extra on the rolls. It is "push and 

Layout for 12-oz. all-wool thibet: Layout for 12-oz. cotton mixture thibet: 

2,560 ends; 10% — 3 reed = 81%" inside 2,240 ends; 9 — 3 = 83". 

listing + 1%" for listing = 83" over all. Lasting to be taken out of warp. 

Warp yarn 4% run, left twist. 30 P icks - 

Filling yarn 5 run, right twist. Warp yarn 3% run, left twist. 

Weave 3 harness, twill to right. Filling yarn 3% run, right twist, spun soft. 

40 picks. Weave -3 harness, twill to right. 

, Kfin „ CALCULATIONS. CALCULATIONS. 

2.560 ends 4% run = 5.40 oz. + g ^ ^ % ^ ends g% run _ 6 40 oz 

83" X 40 picks 5 run = 6.64 oz. 83 " X 30 X 3% run = 6.64 oz. 

+ 8% = 7.17 oz. „..„, 

. 13.04 OZ. 

Loom weight 13.00 oz. P^s 10% = L30 oz. 

Finished weight 12 oz. Loom weight 14.34 oz. 

Fulled to hold 8% in length. Finished weight 12 oz. 

13 oz. varn + 10% manufacturing waste 14 - 34 °f- + 10% waste allowance = 15.93 

= 14% oz. of stock at picker. oz - of stock at picker. 

14% oz. stock @ 50c. per lb = $ .4406 c , „,, „,.,*.„,„, .„„„„ „„* aiu*,,,. 

Plus 8% shrinkage in length = .0355 Stock mixture, warp and filling. 

20% carded cotton @ ISc. per lb. . = $ .0360 

Cost of stock $ .4761 35% fine wool @ 50c. per lb = .1750 

15% fine mill waste @ 12c. per lb..= .0180 

Manufacturing cost and charges: 30% fine thibets @ 18c. per lb...= .0540 

2-loom work = .2600 rnc;t __ .„,,„, ~i 2 R10 

Plus 8% = .0208 Cost per pound J .^SdU 



. „,,,, 16 oz. of stock = $.2830 + 10% 

* -75b9 shrinkage in length = $ .3057 

Manufacturing cost: 2-loom work 

= $.229 + 8% = .2510 



Mill cost $.5567 



push," quantity first and quality second, and as long as the goods are sold 
and they get their price what more is necessary? 



140 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

Dry at a moderate beat, as too high a temperature in drying will undo 
all that has already been accomplished to soften and mellow the cloth, es- 
pecially if the mill is compelled to use hard water in the finishing processes. 
After drying, steam brush well to raise and soften the nap or felt, shear 
to cut off all long fibres, to level the nap and close enough so that the nap 
will not rough up. Steam brush again and dampen with a dewing machine. 
Press at a good pressure, giving it a little steam to soften the face before 
rolling up on the press rolls. 

In the finishing of cotton mixed thibets it is advisable to give a steam 
finish to the goods previous to dyeing, or it can be done after dyeing, which- 
ever is the most convenient. The steam finish will give an added luster to 
the goods and overcome any tendency of the cotton mix to show dead or 
lack luster so common to cotton carded goods. This steam finish is given 
by rolling the goods onto a perforated copper cylinder and blowing steam 
through the goods for 15 minutes while the cylinder is kept revolving, then 
forcing cold water through to thoroughly cool off. This operation is repeat- 
ed on a second cylinder in order to even up the different ends of the cloth. 
This steam finish is described more fully in other articles on broadcloths 
and kerseys. 



EPONGE 



This type of fabric is one which derives its novel appearance entirely 
from the yarns of which it is constructed. Were it made from plain yarns, 
instead of being a high-priced novelty worthy of a place in any lady's ward- 
robe, it would be a loose, sleazy cloth with an appearance more nearly like 
burlap and of comparatively no value. During a season when goods of this 
character are in active demand, there should be opportunities for mills 
equipped with the necessary twisting machinery for production of such 
yarns as enter into these fabrics, to earn exceptionally good profits. Aside 
from the yarn manufacture, the production of these novelties shows no 
difficulties whatever that are not present in as great, if not greater, number 
in manufacturing the more staple fabrics which show a great deal smaller 
profit per yard or per loom. In order to make the 

Greatest Possible Profit 

on fabrics of this nature, the manufacturer should have a plant for the 
spinning of his own yarns from the grease wools. By so doing he is able 
to add the spinner's profit to that of the weaver as well as paying a reason- 
able interest on the extra capital invested in the spinning mill. In addition 
to this feature, the fact that he may produce yarns of various kinds for 
experimental purposes at short notice is a very decided advantage. The 
ability to produce yarns that are different in appearance than those ordi- 
narily shown by dealers is also an item in his favor, and at times he may 
produce a distinct novelty which will prove a free selling fabric at a 
price which will show a very handsome profit. It will take his competitors 
some time to follow with a similar cloth, as experiments must be made to 
duplicate the yarns, which spinners are not at all times ready to do, and 
will result in a considerable delay under any conditions. Meantime the 
market has been supplied at a good price by the originator, before competi- 
tion by copyists has reduced the price to a point where there is very little 
profit to be obtained. 

In order to be in the first rank, it is necessary that the designer of 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 141 

the fabric and the maker of the yarn should be in very close touch with 
each other. In this way, by co-operation and experiment, it is 
possible to attain results that will give an individuality to the line of 
fabrics and secure a good volume of orders at prices that will be extremely 
satisfactory. The manufacturer who is content to follow in the beaten track 
and produce goods which, from force of circumstances, are practically du- 
plicates of other lines will never be eminently successful. 

The particular feature which differentiates the sample under discussion 
from the ordinary is the novelty yarn used in its construction. Instead of 
the usual eponge yarn with its more or less regular loops, this fabric is 
constructed with three ends of ordinary two-ply yarn and one end of a knot 
or slug yarn in the dressing pattern, with all ordinary two-ply yarns in the 
filling. The knot yarn is made with a two-ply core, about which is twisted 
a relatively coarse roving, which, by the intermittent motion of the knot- . 
ting device, is made to form a bunch or slug at intervals of about two and 
a half inches, which is from three-quarters to one inch in length. These 
appear to be scattered somewhat irregularly over the surface of the cloth, 
and from their fancied resemblance to the embryo frog, have given the 
name 

"Tadpole Eponge" 

to the cloth. The eponge with which we are more familiar differs in con- 
struction from this in that it is composed entirely of the novelty yarns 
made on a looping twister. This machine has a second set of rolls which 
carry the thread with which the loop is formed. This set of rolls is 
driven by a separate train of gears and is capable of being driven at a speed 
greatly in excess of that of the rolls carrying the "core" yarn, or base upon 
which the loop is formed. In the manufacture of certain types of loop or 
"picot" yarns it is necessary that the loops should occur at regular inter- 
vals, and this is accomplished by a rail carrying fingers close to each thread, 
which receives an intermittent reciprocating motion from a cam driven by 
a belt from the cylinder shaft. In making the 

Ordinary Eponge Yarns, 

regularity of the loops is not essential, and the mechanism last described 
is dispensed with by most makers of these yarns. In order to prevent dis- 
placement of the loop by the friction of the reed in weaving, it is cus- 
tomary to twist a third thread about it, in the opposite direction, which 
acts as a binder. The core and binder are in many cases made from cotton, 
and do not materially affect the handle or appearance of the cloth. The 
dressing frame must be provided with coarse reeds or many broken threads 
will result from the novelty yarn catching in the reed if a fine one is used. 
In weaving it will also be found advantageous to use coarse reed, as it will 
aid very materially in increasing the production per loom and reduce the 
mending expense in the finishing room. Goods of this type require com- 
paratively little finishing, as they are simply cropped on the shears. The 
scouring must be thoroughly done, or it may result in shady goods from 
the dyehouse. 



LAYOUT. 



COST. 



896 ends novelty yarn; reed 7 — 2 = 64" + 

1%" for listing = 65%" over all. 109 5 oz. + 10% waste = 12.17 oz. 
15 picks. @ S1.12 per lb .== $ .8519 



CALCULATIONS. 



Manufacturing, 15 picks = .1725 



896 ends (3.000 yds. per lb.) = 4.78 Net mill cost $1.0244 

oz. + 10% . „ „ = 5.71 oz. Four harness, straight draw. 

15 picks = - — = 5.24 oz. Plain weave. 

3,000-h16 

Loom weight 10.95 oz. 






142 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

UNFINISHED PENCIL STRIPES 

The popular preference for through and through cloths is largely due 
to the fact that when fabrics for the fall season were much heavier than 
are worn at present, it was custom 1 rv to make the back and race of wor- 
sted, with a stuffing pick of less valuable material for the extra weight. As 
buyers became more versed in the intricacies of cloth construction, the 
desire for fabrics composed entirely of the more expensive materials be- 
came more prevalent, with the consequent result that they demanded a cloth 
having the back and face of similar construction, or as they are commonly 
termed, "through and through" cloths. The impression given the layman 
by many dealers in former times was that the cloths so constructed were 
of foreign manufacture, and therefore superior to fabrics turned out by 
any domestic mills. The injury done to the American manufacturer by 
such shortsighted policy on the part of the clothing dealer and tailor has 
been incalculable, and it has taken much effort and many years to correct 
the false impression given the public by stories of this kind, circulated by 
those who certainly should have known better. As a matter of fact, a very 
large percentage of the "foreign" goods handled by merchant tailors and 
high-class clothiers is the 

Product of Domestic Looms, 
the nearest approach to a sea voyage that the greater portion of them have 
ever had being the one-night trip on the Sound steamer, or the "voyage" 
across the North river. The radical decrease of weight during recent years, 
in both spring and fall fabrics, has resulted in many of the cloths being 
offered in single cloth construction. To the lay mind this term may have 
little significance, but to one at all conversant with fabrics and their man- 
ufacture, it indicates that there is but one system of warp and filling, the 
back and face of the cloth being identical, except that the twill on the back 
is the reverse of that on the face of the goods, and in some cases the 
pattern is not as clear, owing to various causes inherent to construction 
and manufacturing details. 

In order to obtain the weight desired for fall fabrics in single cloth, 
it is customary to use much heavier yarns than would be necessary were 
the double cloth construction used, and, as a result of so doing, the texture 
of the cloth is materially reduced with a consequent increase in the size 
of the twill. The 

Peculiar Feature 
of the fabric here discussed is the fact that while it has all the earmarks 
of a single cloth, save one, it is made with two systems of warp with a 
filling common to both. The pattern on face and back is identical with the 
twill on one side the reverse of the other, but with an apparently much 
higher texture than would be expected in a single cloth. 

This seeming paradox is the result of the weave used, the three-harness 
face and back, which is somewhat unusual, in connection with the com- 
paratively heavy yarns used in the manufacture of this particular cloth. 
As a general thing, the three-harness weave is used in connection with 
fine yarns of good quality and in fabrics of relatively high texture, resulting 
in a cloth with an extremely fine smooth face, and usually developed in a 
line of nice colorings in neat effects. The fabric under discussion is made 
from rather heavy yarns of not particularly good grade: the stock used 
being apparently about a three-eighths blood from some of the bright fleeces, 
probably a Missouri, and spun to 2-24s both warn and filling. In this par- 
ticular cloth both yarns are spun on the Bradford system. As the fabric is 
"unfinished," an effect which possibly would be superior in appearance, 
though an inferior cloth would result, might be obtained by the use of a 
single filling spun on the French system. By so doing it would 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 143 

be possible to make a cloth with a slightly improved 
handle, but the strength would not be equal to that of a cloth made from 
two-ply yarns in both warp and filling. In many mills it is the custom to 
use single yarns for filling in a large proportion of their product, chiefly 
because of the saving in spinning expense of the relatively large single yarn, 
over that of producing two threads of practically half the weight, which 
must be doubled and twisted to form the finished thread. This method is 
used both for the manufacture of light and heavy weights in piece-dyed 
cloths, but is not as commonly employed in the production of fancies, as 
this would necessitate the use of either stock-dyed or slub-dyed yarns, a 
more expensive mode of operation than the ordinary skein dyeing. 

One of the principal factors in deciding the type of fabrics to be made 
at any time is the class of styles which is likely to prove popular. This 
will be readily understood by those at all conversant with manufacturing, 
as it is manifestly impossible to attain the desired end if the texture of the 
fabric is not suitable for the pattern it is desired to produce. It is essential 
that the styler should have a certain amount of knowledge regarding fab- 
rics if his work is to be of the highest type, though it is not necessary 
that he should be a designer or 

Expert on Fabric Construction. 
He must have a sufficient idea of fabrics and styles, however, to decide as 
to which particular fabric is best adapted to show up any of the styles he 
wishes to have made. Unless he is possessed of this knowledge, it is 
necessary for him to rely entirely upon the ability of the designer, who 
oftentimes is not in sufficiently close touch with the market to be able to 
form an accurate idea as to what is best suited to the needs of the buyer. 
The advantage held over his competitors by a styler who has had some 
technical training is much more apparent in a season when business is 
limited in volume, for in such a season he is able to develop fabrics which 
will secure a fair volume of orders, while his business rivals are forced to 
rely on the judgment of one not in touch with conditions and therefore not 
in position to construct cloths which will appeal to the buyer. 

The Peculiar Advantage 

of using the construction here described for the present season lies in the 
fact that by so doing it. is possible to produce a perfect pencil stripe by 
using a single light-colored thread in the warp and still avoid the stitchy 
appearance common to most cloths so constructed. The warp is dressed in 
such a manner that when the light color is lowered, a similar colored pick 
of filling covers it, forming a continurus line of color without a bre?k. In a 
similar manner a stripe is formed on the back of the fabric, giving it the 
appearance of a single cloth, of a relatively higher texture. The advantage 
of using the three-harness weave instead of the ordinary four-harness even 
twill will be patent to anyone familiar with cloth construction. It gives a 
much 

Finer Appearing Face 
without increasing the number of picks per inch, thereby allowing a greater 
production per loom than would be possible if the four-harness twill were 
used with the same number of twills per inch. There are many styles 
capable of development in this weave and construction, though it is not 
particularly well adapted for making checks. There is a wide range of 
styles which might be developed to advantage in this cloth and which 
should prove to be good dividend producers. 

Contrary to the usual experience with three-harness twills, that here 
described should show a very satisfactory production from the loom, with 
practically no increase in mending expense over fabrics made in the com- 
mon twill weave. The yarns used should be made from well-grown wools 



144 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

of good luster and staple, which have been well scoured with proper de- 
tergents and soft water. It may appear to some readers that these are 
unimportant trifles, but, nevertheless, it is attention to these trifles that 
ultimately results in perfection. It may seem a detail not worth mentioning 
to say that the bath used in scouring the wool should never be above 120 
degrees Fahrenheit, but should excessive heat be used in this process it 
will have an effect on the fibre which no amount of after-treatment will 
rectify. The same statement may truthfully be made relative to the purity 
of the materials used as detergents on the raw stock or the goods in the 
finishing room. It is too often the case that processes which 

Have an Important Bearing 
on finished results are left in charge of unskilled help, who have no idea 
of the harm that may result from inattention to these apparent trifles, with 
the result that the finished product is inferior, and no one is able to defi- 
nitely locate the process that is primarily at fault. In many cases it has 
been traced back to the very first process through which the stock passed 
on its way to be manufactured into yarn. The physical structure of the 
fibre itself may be so injured by improper treatment as to render it in- 
capable of being spun to as fine counts as the grade and length of staple 
would ordinarily warrant. In the dressing of the warp it will be unneces- 
sary to use size, as the warp yarns are of such size and strength to weave 
nicely without such treatment. If there are piece-dyed fabrics to be made 
in the mill it would be perfectly feasible to operate on the two-loom sys- 
tem, giving each weaver one white warp and one fancy. The burlings must 
be carefully attended to, all knots raised and left for the shear to remove. 
Should this be done by the burlers, the knots must be well raised and the 
ends left long enough to prevent their shrinking back in scouring sufficient 
to make the defect known as pinholes. 

Yarns Well Inspected. 

The sewers should have but little work on goods of this class if the 
yarns have been well inspected and all slugs removed before they were put 
into warps or wound for filling. Goods of this character may be fulled in 
the grease, as they contain nothing that should injure the appearance of 
the light colors. The length of time required to obtain the desired amount 
of nap will vary somewhat with conditions and must, in a large measure, be 
left to the judgment of the finisher. Fulling should not be carried on long 
enough to burst the threads, however, as it will materially detract from 
the appearance of the finished fabric. Probably 30 to 40 minutes in the 
fulling mill will be found ample for the fabric under discussion. The goods 
should be immediately transferred to the washer where every particle of dirt 
and soap should be removed. Inasmuch as worsted goods are comparatively 
free from impurities, they should not require the use of additional soap, that 
used in fulling retaining sufficient vitality and detergent properties to thor- 
oughly cleanse the pieces. Do not extract the pieces top thoroughly. This 
is a precaution that may meet with disapproval in some quarters, but an 
experience of many years has proven, to the writer's satisfaction at least, 
that goods too well extracted do not handle as well when finished, as iden- 
tical cloths which contain slightly more moisture when run into the drying 
machine. Here, too, we may differ from the practice of some finishers in 

Advocating Slow Drying, 
with a relatively low temperature. It will be found that goods treated in 
this manner will have a perceptibly better handle than would be the case 
were they subjected to greater heat in drying. In fact, the superior quality 
of goods dried in the open air is not nearly as much due to that fact, of 
itself, as it is to the slow drying which this method involves. 

When dry, the goods should have a few runs on the brush and are then 
ready for the shear. The shearing of fabrics such as here described con- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



145 



sists simply in removing the long fibres and evening up the nap, after which 
the goods should have another run on the brush before pressing. If the 
finishing room equipment is complete, it should include a dewing machine, 
and a run over this should precede pressing. If this is not feasible, a light 
steaming before entering the press is advised. After pressing and a final 
inspection the goods are ready for rolling up for shipment. 



LAYOUT. 
3.024 ends; 11 reed, 4 per dent = 68. 

1V£" for listing = 70.2" over all. 
48 picks. 

DRESSED. 

2/24 black 2 I 

2/24 50% mixture 1 



FILLING. 

2/24 black 1 

2/24 mixture 



1 I 



COST. 
10.68 oz. black + 10% waste = 11. 

oz. @ 76c. per lb = 

5.35 oz. mixture + 5% waste = 

5.63 oz. @ S4c. per lb = 



Cost of stock 

Manufacturing, 48 picks 



Net mill cost 



$ .565 
.296 



.861 
.345 



CALCULATIONS 
2,016 ends 2/24 black = 4.8 oz. + 

10% take-up 

1,008 ends 2/24 mixture = 

+ 10% take-up 

32X70.2 
32 pks. 2/24 blk. 



16 pks. 2/24 mix. 
Loom weight 



24X560-^2h-16 
16X70.2 



24X560-H2-5-16 



+ 




mamz.-Tw- 




□ ■■■OHD 


= 5.33 oz. 




■ nana 






■■•Di_DCB 


= 2.67 oz. 


DDIIiDID 

■DDDBBBD 




O 


■■■a DLB 


= 5.35 oz. 


fa 


C"B ■" ■ 




■GODBBBD 




■■■' - : * 






DDIIIDOI 


= 2.68 oz. 




bodubbob 


16.03 oz. 








MONTAGNAC 



This fabric is one of the finest and softest overcoatings produced, either 
in foreign or domestic cloths. It is in appearance somewhat similar to a 
fine baby lamb, but has not the same luster nor is the curl quite so decided. 
It is prized largely because of the unusual softness of the material and the 
great warmth without excessive weight. That it is not more commonly 
manufactured is due to the fact that its production requires special ma- 
chinery in the finishing department and unusual skill on the part of the 
finisher. For many years practically every piece of this iabric was im- 
ported, but more recently domestic mills have been equipped with the 
necessary machinery, and some very fine goods of this character are now 
produced by domestic manufacturers. 

The appearance of the goods is greatly altered in the process of finish- 
ing, and to so great an extent is this true, that anyone not conversant with 
the methods employed would not think it possible to produce the finished 
article from the loose, sleazy, uncouth-appearing fabric that comes from the 
loom. In its unfinished state, or the "flannel," as it is technically termed, 
the goods are rough and unsightly, with the face threads lying loosely on 
the surface, but in the hands of a skillful finisher, with the necessary 
equipment, a truly wonderful transformation takes place, and the uncouth 
flannel becomes a beautiful cloth, fit for clothing the finest lady in the land. 
By means of soap, water and heat used in conjunction with the proper 
machinery, the rough, thready face is entirely hidden under a thick, curly 
nap that is a delight to both touch and sight. 

Manufacturer Receives Small Profit. 

The retail price of a fairly good montagnac is from six to seven dollars 
a yard, which seems a rather high price for a fabric weighing only 26 
ounces, composed almost entirely of wool. Without doubt, it does show an 



146 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

extremely handsome profit, but unfortunately the manufacturer receives a 
very small part of the retail price as his profit. It is true in the merchan- 
dising of woolens, as in nearly all commodities, that the high prices paid 
by the ultimate consumer have, in a large measure, been added by the mid- 
dlemen, who handle the goods between the producer and he who finally 
puts it to the use for which it was originally intended. In the majority of 
cases it will be found that the producer of the article, be it what it may, 
receives as his profit an extremely small amount compared with that of 
the intermediate handlers. How to eliminate the increased cost of mer- 
chandise, due to thepe extra profits, is a question engaging some of our 
brightest minds at present. 

The wools used in the manufacture of montagnacs must be sorted with 
more than ordinary care, as only the finest, softest stock obtainable can 
be used for the production of fabrics of this type. After sorting, the stock 
should be dusted in order to remove as much as possible of the loose dust 
and foreign matter of various kinds adhering to the fibre, leaving less to 
be removed in the scouring bath, a material saving of detergents being 
effected by so doing. For the scouring of the fine wools used, a 

Four-Bowl Parallel Rake Machine 

is the best possible type, and should be used in conjunction with the very 
best scouring materials to be obtained, and soft water. This last item is 
absolutely indispensable, and if a natural supply of soft water is not to be 
obtained, the supply must be softened by mechanical or chemical 
means. Wool, in its natural state, as probably every one of our readers is 
aware, contains a varying quantity of a natural greasy matter, in addition 
to the various impurities which mechanically adhere to the fleece. This 
grease or "yolk" must be removed before the wool can be put into the 
manufacturing process. This is usually accomplished by scouring with 
some of the familiar detergents, such as soap and alkali. The necessity for 
soft water in this process is readily explained. The most common cause 
of hardness in water is the presence of iron or lime salts. When such water 
is used for wool scouring, the soap is disintegrated and the fatty portions 
.unite with the acids held by the lime or iron compounds, which are also 
decomposed, forming a lime soap. While ordinary soaps are soluble in 
water, forming an emulsion, the lime soaps are insoluble and are deposited 
on the wool in the scouring liquor. In the form of a sticky paste, the lime 
soap completely envelops the fibre and is 

Removed with Extreme Difficulty. 

If the fibre is not thoroughly cleansed, however, the dyeing operation is 
attended with great difficulty, and it will be well-nigh impossible to get 
level shades. With pure soft water and a well-made potash soap, built up 
to sufficient strength with a pure mild alkali, a four-bowl washing machine 
should bring the wool out snowy white. It must be kept in mind that under 
no circumstances should the temperature of the scouring liquor be allowed 
to rise over 130 degrees Fahrenheit. Greater heat than this will have a 
decided tendency to injure the working qualities of the wool. 

In these days it is common practice to hasten the drying of the wool 
by artificial means, but for this type of fabric the aid of steam should not 
be invoked if possible to avoid it. A much better method is to dry by the 
so-called "cold air" system, that is by spreading the wool on a suitable 
screen and forcing air through it at the ordinary temperature. Wool dried 
in this manner will be found to work much better in subsequent onerations. 
If the goods are to be stock-dyed, the next operation is the dyeing. For 
especially fine goods it is the usual custom to color the blacks with an in- 
digo bottom which gives them a body and bloom that cannot be obtained by 
any other method. After drying from the dyehouse, the stock is ready for 
the mixing picker. That the fibres may be more easily carded and spun 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 147 

it is necessary that a lubricant of some kind be applied in the picker room. 
This is usually applied in the 

Form of an Emulsion, 
made by mixing some suitable oil with a certain proportion of water and 
"cutting" the oil by the addition of a small quantity of alkali such as borax, 
sal soda or soda ash. In working fine wools, a very satisfactory emulsion 
may be made by using equal parts of a good, repressed red oil and water, 
emulsified with sal soda. This should be used in the proportion of eight 
quarts of emulsion to 100 pounds of stock, an equivalent of four quarts of 
oil per hundredweight of wool. There are various methods in use for apply- 
ing the oil, most of which are satisfactory if used intelligently, the prime 
object of them all being to distribute the oil as evenly as possible over the 
entire mass of wool. Some of the mechanical devices for attachment to the 
picker are productive of very good resets, and probably secure a more 
even application than is usually obtained by the old system 
of using a specially prepared sprinkler similar in form to the 
ordinary watering can. The stock should be put through the picker twice 
to be sure that it is weU opened and mixed, the" it rrav re conveyed to a 
suitable bin convenient to the feed box of the first breaker card. 

The cards must be in Al condition, the wire sharp and set sufficiently 
close to thoroughly comb out the stock without injuring the staple. The 
wire should be fairly fine, not coarser than 30 on the first and second 
breaker, with 32 on the finisher. With fine stock, such as used in the fabric 
under discussion, it will be possible to take off a rather heavy roving, which 
will give a relatively larger production from the card room and still give 
excellent results in the mule room, and make a strong, even elastic thread. 
In spooling, there is a distinct advantage in using the 

Compressing Type of Spooler, 
as much more yarn can be placed on each spool with a correspondingly 
increased production in the dressing room, for there will be less stoppage 
for tying in spools. The paddle weights should be so adjusted on the dress- 
ing frame that every section will receive the same tension, thus eliminating 
the danger of imperfections known as "section stripes" in the finished goods. 
The warps should be made as long as the pins on the reel will permit, and 
in beaming, a warp compressor should be used. This device permits of put- 
ting a much greater yardage on the beam with no undue strain on the yarn, 
makes a warp that is solid and even and adds to the ease of weaving to a 
very appreciable extent. When the warps are drawn in, reeded and ready 
for the loom, the fixer should see that the loom is in the best possible con- 
dition, go over the various parts and see that they are so adjusted as to 
give the best possible results on the class of work to be woven. It is much 
better to give the loom the necessary attention when empty than to delay 
the weaver and possibly make some cloth that is imperfect while the warp 
is starting up. 

The burling and sewing is a very small item on this class of fabrics, 
as there is no danger of cutting knot holes on the shear from the fact that 
the goods are merely cropped. The question as to the 
Best Time for Fulling Montagnacs 
is one each finisher decides for himself, some preferring to scour in the grease, 
while others insist that better results are obtained by first scouring the 
goods. In either case the use of pure soaps and alkali must be insisted on, 
a.s harsh alkalis will cause absolute failure to secure the desired finish. For 
fulling, a pure neutral palm oil soap is preferable to one made from a tallow 
base. It is customary with some finishers to interruot the fulling process 
and give these cloths some work on the napping machine before the fulling 
is completed. From the mills, the. pieces should be transferred immediately 
to the washers and given a run for 20 minutes with warm water, after which 



148 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



they should be well rinsed. Every vestige of soap must be removed before 
they are taken from the washer, or it will be impossible to get a satisfactory 
finish. When satisfied that the goods are clean, extract and place on the 
napper. When, in the judgment of the finisher, they are sufficiently napped, 
place on the cropping shear and even up ihe fibres, nap again, crop and dry. 

The Dried Pieces 
are given several runs on a brush with stiff bristles so as to raise the nap 
thoroughly, then taken to the whipping machine which causes the nap to 
stand straight up. Prom the whipper they are led to the curling dryer, pass- 
ing before a perforated pipe which thoroughly wets the pile without per- 
ceptibly dampening the fabric itself. It immediately passes into the drying 
chamber, where the heat causes the nap to curl back on the cloth. On 
looking into the dryer the surface of the cloth appears to be covered with 
a mass of wriggling worms, caused by the heat acting on the moist nap. 
The drier must be of sufficient length to permit of thoroughly drying the 
goods without reversing the fabric, that is to say, it must not be necessary 
for the face of the goods to pass over a roll or the finish will be spoiled. 
When dry, the goods require no shearing or pressing, but are ready for in- 
spection and rolling up for market. 



LAYOUT. 
2.016 ends; reed 7 — 4 = 72" + 2" for list- 
ing = 74" over all. 
50 picks — 1 face. 
1 back. 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,016 ends 1% run = 11.52 oz. + 

3% = 11.85 oz. 

74X25 

25 picks 1 % run = = 10.57 oz. 

175 
74 X 25 

25 picks = = 6.72 oz. 

275 ■ 

Loom weight 29.14 oz. 

COST. 
11.85 oz. + 15% shrinkage = 13.94 

oz. (a) 52c. per lb = $ .455 

10.57 oz. + 15% shrinkage = 12.43 

oz. @ $1.75 per lb = 1.367 

6.72 oz. -f 15% shrinkage = 7.91 

oz. @ 40c. per lb = .198 

Stock cost $2,020 

Manufacturing, 50 picks = .600 

Net mill cost $2,620 

Warp: Fine wool @ 52c. 



FACE FILLING MIXTURE. 

50% fine Australian @ $1.02 = $ .51 

50% cashmere @ $2.50 = 1.25 

$1.76 
BACK FILLING MIXTURE. 

60% fine wool @ 52c = $ .312 

40% fine extract @ 22c = .088 



■aniiin 

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OMDDaDD 

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i ■■■■DBB 

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DBDDnanB 



$ .400 



SILK STRIPE POPLIN 



Poplins are made in a variety of constructions and weights, from silk, 
worsted and combinations of either with cotton. The fabric selected for 
analysis is made from worsted, both warp and filling, with a decorative 
stripe of silk twist at intervals of approximately three-quarters of an inch. 
The present season has seen a greater revival of popularity for this ex- 
tremely serviceable cloth than has been apparent for some time. In appear- 
ance it very much resembles the piques so much used for skirting purposes 
during the summer season. Its production is confined to a great extent to 
the large corporations who make a specialty of dress goods and have had 
the necessary experience to enable them to produce such cloths at a price 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 149 

that would mean ruin for the ordinary mill. By making fabrics of this char- 
acter in quantities, 

Spinning Their Own Yarns, 
and the careful elimination of every expense item which may possibly be 
cut out, they are able to manufacture for much less than a mill not specially 
equipped for turning out fabrics of this kind. The yarns used are, in nearly 
every instance, made from the foreign crossbreds, though limited quantities 
of domestic wools are also used by some of the large producers of domestic 
dress goods. That intrinsic worth is not at all times the basis on which 
prices are figured is well exemplified by two samples of poplin shown the 
present season by a large department store. One of them is a 40-inch fab- 
ric, about 7y 2 ounces in weight, selling at $1.25 per yard, while the other is 
a 12-ounce cloth with worsted warp, and a coarse cotton filling which com- 
prises about two-thirds of the total weight and sells for $2.50 per yard. That 
the greater portion of buyers are practically ignorant of the composition of 
the fabrics offered is incontrovertible, but that such ignorance is so preva- 
lent among buyers for the various departments in our large mercantile es- 
tablishments is inexcusable in these days, when a knowledge of fibres and 
cloth composition is so much more readily obtained than has been the case 
in the past. 

Expert Technical Training Not Necessary. 
It is not at all necessary that the salesmen should be technically trained 
experts, but it would not appear unreasonable to expect that they should 
be able to detect the difference between a fabric that is pure wool and one 
that contains a considerable quantity of cotton that is not amalgamated 
with wool during the process of manufacturing. In the all-worsted fabric 
here analyzed, the warp and filling are both single yarns combed from wool 
of medium grade and fairly good staple spun on the French system. The 
warps are dry dressed and then sized on the slasher, which insures an 
equal distribution of the sizing material, as well as giving a nice straight 
warp, which usually weaves better than would be the case if the warps 
were sized on the dresser. The weaving is invariably on the two-loom 
systent and the fabrics piece-dyed. The introduction of the silk decoration 
will in no wise interfere with this method of manufacture, as there is a 
variety of dyestuffs on the market which will produce the desired shade 
on the wool without 

Changing the Shade of the Silk. 
In order to obtain the rib effect peculiar to this fabric the goods are fre- 
quently woven two picks in a shade, but the same effect may be produced 
by the use of a filling yarn of sufficient size to obtain the desired result 
with one pick. If this method is used it will effect a very material increase 
in the production per loom and also result in a very appreciable saving in the 
cost of the yarn, as it is evident to the layman that one large thread 
may be manufactured at a much less cost than two threads of approximately 
half the weight. The finishing of poplins does not present any unusual 
or peculiar features. The goods are burled and mended, then placed in the 
washer and cleansed with any good soap. The precise grade is a matter 
to be decided by the finisher and manager of the plant. In some of our 
larger mills it is the custom to manufacture their own soap. 

The saving in expense thus effected is possibly not so much a feature 
as the fact that the soap so made is at all times of the same grade and of 
absolute purity, which is not true in all instances when soaps are pur- 
chased in the open market. The 

Necessary Facilities for Soap Making 

are not expensive, nor is the manufacturing a particularly difficult opera- 
tion. A very satisfactory soap may be made from the formula here given, 
and may be used for scouring the raw stock or woven fabrics. Dissolve 200 



150 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



pounds of caustic potash in 50 gallons of water, boiling until thoroughly 
dissolved and add water to make 200 gallons, making a solution of a pound 
of alkali to the gallon. At a temperature of 65 degrees Fahrenheit the dye 
should test close to 140 degrees Twaddell. Run the lye into barrels with 
a gallon of red oil to each four gallons of the liquor, agitating occasionally 
until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed, forming a soft soap. This may 
be used as the base for a scouring liquor for raw stock or may be boiled up 
with the addition of alkali and water for scouring piece goods. When the 
goods are free from impurities and the soap has been thoroughly rinsed out 
they should be transferred to the 

Continuous Crabbing Machine, 

which will give them a "set" and put them in excellent condition for the 
dyehouse. Better results will be obtained if the pieces are allowed to re- 
main on the rolls for at least 24 hours before sending them to the dye 
kettles. The rolls should be stood on end and the position reversed at in- 
tervals of six to eight hours to prevent the moisture settling at either side 
of the piece, as this would be apt to cause trouble in dyeing. The great 
difficulty encountered in piece-dyeing is shady goods, either shaded from 
side to center or end to end. In the major part of such instances the trouble 
may be traced to improper treatment in scouring or crabbing rather than 
in the dyeing department itself. When the desired shade has been ob- 
tained, cool off with cold water, running into the kettle with the draw-off 
plug released and give a thorough rinsing berore removing from the kettle. 
Five minutes in the extractor should be ample to prepare the pieces for the 
drying machine. In drying, the heat should not be excessive, for the handle 
of the goods will be materially improved if the dryer be enlarged rather 
than to force the operation in a small machine by increasing the tempera- 
ture. After drying, the pieces should have a run on the brush before shear- 
ing and another brushing between the shear and the dewing machine. The 
pressing should not be too heavy, and after a final inspection the goods may 
be measured and packaged for market. 



LAYOUT. 
3,600 ends; reed 12 — 6 = 50" + IV2" for 

listing = 51.5" over all. 
SO picks. 

DRESSING. 

1/S2 white 36 30 I 66 

1/32 white and. white sin- 
gle org", silk 6 I 6 

72 
5 

360 
*10 

♦Sections. 3,600 

CALCULATIONS. 
3,600 ends 1/32 = 3.21 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 3.5310 oz. 

300 ends single org. = .3202 oz. 

+ 10% take-up = .3522 oz. 

51.5X80 

80 picks 1/24 = ...= 4.9040 oz. 

560X24-4-16 ■ 

Loom weight 8.7872 oz. 



COST. 
3.531 oz. + 5% waste = 3.72 oz. @ 

84c. per lb = $ .196! 

.3522 oz. + 5% waste = .3707 oz. & 

$8.50 per lb = .199: 

4.904 oz. + 3% waste = 5.06 oz. @ 

SOc. per lb = .2531 

Cost of stock $.649: 

Manufacturing, SO picks = .4001 

Net mill cost $1,049: 



Six harness, straight draw. 



£ mrmrun 

5 BOBPHn 

3 r IDRDi 

- CHDiDi 



UNFINISHED FANCY WORSTED WITH SILK DECORATION 

A particularly attractive style in heavy-weight men's wear is the double 
and twist worsted suiting with silk decoration, the analysis of which is 
here given. By means of well- chosen colors for the twists, it is possible 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 151 

to develop a very attractive line of styles that should meet with a ready 
sale. The fabric itseif presents nothing paiticuiarly new in the way of 
construction or finish and owes its desirability in a large measure to the 
cely blended colorings of the twists used in the warp together with the 
additional life and character given by a judicious use of spun silk twisted 
with a biack worsted. The whole effect is very pleasing and gives the ap- 
pearance of a pin check picked out with silk. The texture of the fabric is 
relatively low, counting only 52 ends and 48 picks per inch, which should 
show a very satisfactory production, as the looms, 82 inches in width being 
preferable, may be operated at a speed of 120 picks per minute. With good 
yarns and well prepared warps there should be no trouble encountered in 
the weave room with looms of the proper type at this speed. In these days 
of hard competition it is essential that production shall be large, as the pos- 
sible margin of profit is very low, indeed, on goods which are not in the 
novelty class. 

In order to earn a dividend that shall be satisfactory to the stockhold- 
ers it is necessary that everyone in the manufacturing department devote 
their energies to securing the largest possible output of perfect goods. In 
some mills the latter item seems to be lost sight of to a marked extent, 
with a resultant high rate of finishing expense, and too often an 

Excess of Remnants 
and seconds. In the production of the type of goods under discussion there 
should be an extremely low percentage of seconds made, and should the 
"strings" or allowances for imperfections average over two for each piece, 
it would be wise to undertake a rigid investigation as to the cause and see 
that tuither work of that sort is eliminated. 

If the yarns are spun by the mill weaving the goods there is absolutely 
no excuse for poor work, and if they are purchased in the open market, 
no reputable spinner would continue to deliver yarns not up to the standard 
if the matter were called to his attention. Yarns for the production of such 
fabrics as this shouid be spun from well selected fleece wools, with no ad- 
mixture of pulled wools, as those are termed which are taken from the skins 
of dead animals. The yarn made frsm wool shorn from a living sheep is 
much brighter, loftier and of greater strength than any that can be made 
from the same grade of pulled wools. For the manufacture of the worsted 
twists, top -dyed yarns should be used, as in this method of manufacture the 
noils are left in the white, in which condition they are more salable and 
command a much higher price. Top-dyeing may be performed in a variety 
of ways, one of the most common, in use in many mills fitted with skein- 
dyeing machines of the Klauder-Weldon type, being to make skeins of the 
top and dye in the same manner as yarn. This is hardly as satisfactorv as 
the 

Method of Dyeing in Balls, 

as now in common use by a large number of job dyers and worsted spin- 
ners. By this method it is unnecessary to handle the top so often, and, on 
the whole, better results are obtained. The balls of top are placed on a 
perforated spindle in a suitable receptacle and the dye-liquor forced through 
by means of a pump. In this way perfect penetration is obtained and a level 
color assured with no damage to the material. When the desired shade is 
obtained the liquor is pumped into a tank or allowed to flow into the waste 
way, the tops removed from the dyeing machine, extracted, dried, and are 
then ready for the gilling process. In the sample here analyzed, three dis- 
tinct +wjs f s are used: A dark ox-blood red is twisted with olive, a sap^Mre 
with black, and a white silk with black for the warp colors, while the filling 
is all b'ack. The warps may be dressed on a dry frame, as the size and 
strength is such that sizing is not needed to insure good weaving. In the 
weave room, the looms should be carefully adjusted when the warps arc 



152 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



started and should require comparatively little attention from the fixer 
until the warp is out, as the weave is easy and will not cause undue strain 
on any part of the mechanism. For goods of this description a loom with 
positive take-up is much the best type to use, as it practically 

Eliminates All Trouble 

in the way of uneven cloth, and in a measure insures that the correct tex- 
ture is maintained throughout the piece. After weaving, the goods should 
be measured and inspected, all imperfections marked with a chalk that 
may be readily removed in the scouring, and the details as to length, weight, 
piece number, etc., entered on suitable sheets provided for that purpose. 
In the burling room the knots should be raised, slugs removed, and all 
imperfections not indicated by the percher should be marked at this time, 
so that the sewers may not waste valuable time in looking for damages 
requiring their attention. The goods are now ready for the fulling, and 
should be run into the mill double, or two pieces at once. The soap used 
should be a pure neutral palm oil built up to the required strength with a 
mild alkali. The use of a soaping machine, to secure even distribution o_f 
the soap, will materially assist in attaining satisfactory results. When 
sufficiently fulled, the pieces should be immediately transferred to the 
washer and given a run with warm water for 20 to 30 minutes, which should 
be sufficient to float out the grease and dirt, then rinsed in warm water and 
worked for half an hour with clear cold water. Extract for three minutes, 
wet brush and dry. From the dryer the pieces should go to the back burlers 
and then have two or three runs on the brush before shearing. 

The shearing of this type of fabric is a short operation, as all that is 
required is the evening of the nap and clipping off all the long, loose fibres. 
From the shear the pieces should go to the fine sewers, where imperfections 
hitherto unnoticed may be repaired, when the goods are ready for the final 
brushing. Before pressing give a run on the dewing machine, then give a 
fairly heavy press, roll up hot and allow to cool off on the rolls. The finish 
will be much improved if the goods are not disturbed for at least 24 hours. 



LAYOUT. 
2,912 ends; 10% reed, 4 in dent = 67.7" 4- 

1%" for listing = 69.2" over all. 
48 picks. 

DRESSING. 
2/22 black and 60/2 white I 

silk tw 1 I 1 

2/22 Mack and sapphire tw. . 1 I 1 

2/22 ox blood and olive tw. .. 2 J 2 

4 
104 

416 

•7 

♦Sections 2,912 

Filling: 2/22 black 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,184 ends 2/22 tw. = 5.67 oz. + 

10% take-up = 6.300 oz. 

728 ends 2/22 black = 1.S9 oz. + 

10% t^ke-up = 2.100 oz. 

72S Pttds 60/2 silk =^= .231 oz. 4- 

20% take-up = .288 oz. 

48X69.2 
48 pks. 2/22 blk. = = 8.690 oz. 



COST. 
6.3 oz. + 5% waste = 6.63 


OZ. 


® 

& 
& 
& 


$ 


.348 
.102 
.062 
.411 


2.1 oz. + 7% waste = 2.26 


oz. 


.288 oz. + 3% waste = .297 
$3.36 per lb 


OZ. 


8.69 oz. + 5% waste = 9.14 


OZ. 










$ 


.923 
.350 




1W. 


$1 


.273 


Eight harness, straight 

■ BBnGBBDD 
H ' BBDDBB 1 
J5 COBB PBB 
O BTDB*OQB 
S FBDDBBnn 
K DBBODBBn 

El, rnB-nnBn 

BDHBBDDB 


dr 



Loom weight 



24X560-i-16-7-2 



17.378 oz. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 153 



CREPE CLOTH 



One of the most popular fabrics shown in the dress goods trade this 
season is the crepe in a variety of weights and colors. Possibly it owes 
part of its popularity to the fact that it ministers to the craving for some- 
thing new, which is ever present, particularly with the feminine portion of 
our population. The novel feature of the cloth is its light weight and full 
handle, combined with the facility for draping very nicely. In the cheaper 
g.ades it is shown made up into popular-priced suits, to sell at retail for 
$17.50 to $20, according to the location and clientele of the merchant. The 
novelty effect produced is entirely the result of the weave used, and does not 
depend on unusual shrinkage of the yarns, as do many of the fabrics sold 
under this name. The stock used for the manufacture of the sample here 
described is combed from one of the foreign crossbreds, New Zealand or 
South American, or possibly a blend of both of them. Both these wools are 

Particularly Well Adapted 

for use in dress goods manufacture, and the greater part of the importa- 
tions of these stocks are used in the production of fabrics for women's wear. 
In view of the great number of automatic looms now operating so success- 
fully on many types of cotton goods, it would seem that they might find an 
extended field in the production of many of the worsted dress goods that 
are woven in the grey and afterward piece-dyed. A few of them are in 
successful use and should create hard competition for mills not so equipped. 
Fabrics of this character, in which the warps are made from strong, two-ply 
yarns, should show a considerable saving when made on automatic looms 
over those woven on the ordinary type of loom. The yarns in the sample 
analyzed are of comparatively low grade, the warp a two-ply and the filling 
a single thread. The production of this fabric in quantity may safely be 
undertaken by any mill having fancy looms of 12-harness capacity, as 

A Variety of Styles May Be Made 

that require a no greater number of harnesses. The warps may be dressed 
on a dry frame, then placed in the slasher for sizing, which will effect a 
considerable saving in time over the wet dressing frame, and usually is 
productive of much better results in the weave room. Before putting the 
warp into the loom, the fixer should take the time required to go over the 

LAYOUT. 

1,900 ends; 9% reed, 4 in dent = 50" + inanmnun 

1V 2 " for listing = 51%" over all. ■"■■□;SSmdS 

50 picks. aaaa«aaa«aiM 

CALCULATIONS. £ SBB55SS3S333 

1.900 ends 2/30 = 3.62 oz. + 10% g S3SSS3.88525 

take-up ..== S.DXt oz. g QDHD<»Ba«aa*- 



575X50 g 



iDHniGGaaaa 



50 picks 1/20= ....= 3.534 oz. * DjaiigL 

. ^xbbu — lb ■D«n«aD»Bnao 

Loom weight 7.516 oz. 

COST. 
3.982 oz. + 5% waste = 4.19 oz. 

@ 70c. per !b = $ .18331 

3.534 oz. + 3% waste = 3.644 oz. 

@ 64c. per lb = .14576 

Cost of stock $ .32907 

Manufacturing, 50 picks = .25000 

Net mill cost $.57907' 

loom thoroughly, and see that it is in the best possible condition, .as many 
parts may now be reached with ease that are not easily gotten at when a 
warp is ready for weaving. The finishing is not essentially different from 
the process usually pursued with clear finished fabrics and requires the use 



154 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

of no special machinery. After burling and sewing, the pieces are scourec 
in the ordinary type of washing machine and then immediately transferrec 
to the crab. 

While many finishers are of the opinion that the old style Yorkshire is 
productive of the best results, there is a rapidly gi owing number who are ir 
favor of using the continuous crab for this class of fabrics. The fact thai 
it requires less labor and is a much more rapid process has done much tc 
assist it in acquiring the strong position it now holds with finishers wh( 
are familiar with its use. The goods should be allowed to remain on th< 
crab rolls until they are thoroughly set and may then be taken to the dye- 
house. The dyeing is performed in the ordinary type of kettle with a ree 
over which the goods pass. The form of reel approved by many dyers is 
wooden drum, on which rounded knoblike blocks are placed at intervals ; 
which prevent the cloth from lunning continuously in the same foids. When 
dyed, the goods are cooled off and well rinsed before removing from the 
kettle, then extracted and dried. After a run on the brush they are sheared, 
again brushed, pressed, inspected and rolled up for market. 



FIGURED DRESS GOODS 

Among the novelties offered the present season, one of the most pop 
ular of the worsted fabrics is the brocade effect, either produced by means 
of the weave alone, or with the addition of extra threads for the figure in 
warp or filling, or, in many cases, in both systems of threads. The threads 
used for the formation of the figures are sometimes identical with those of 
the groundwork, and in other instances are of a different size or of an 
entirely different material. It is not at all unusual to find a groundwork of 
cotton with figures of- worsted, or a worsted ground with silk figures. The 
type of fabric illustrated and analyzed is composed of worsted warp and 




Figured Dress Goods, 

filling, with the decorative threads of a relatively large size when compar- 
ed with the ground. 

One of the chief features in which this fabric differs from many of those 
which have sold so freely in the recent past is in the method of producing 
the figure. The yarns used for the figure effect are first skein-dyed to a 
dark shade and then dressed into a warp of grey yarn. By means of piece- 
dyeing, it is possible to produce a number of very effective styles 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 155 

from one dressing. The dark threads which form the figure on the face of 
the goods are not changed in color, or to a very slight extent, while the 
yarns in the grey, which form the groundwork, may be dyed to practically 
any desired shade. There are several decided advantages in this method 
of manufacturing, and it may be applied to many other cloths with equally 
good results. By this procedure the coloring of the ground warp in the 
skein is eliminated, with a considerable saving of steam and labor, as well 
as the winding from the skein to six-inch double headed spools, 
and the transfer from these to the dresser spools, with its 
attendant expense and waste of material. An equal saving is made on the 
single yarns used tor the filling. If the goods were to be woven in the 
colors of the finished fabric, it would necessitate either dyeing the stock 
for the filling in the raw state, or in the form of slubbing or top. The first 
and second methods are not in common use at the present time, as either 
of these systems would produce colored wastes and noils, which are not 
salable at prices which cap be obtained for these by-products in the grey. 
If necessary to produce a single yarn, in colors, the method most in 
vogue in modern mills is to dye the top, which eliminates the making of 
the major portion of the colored wastes. There are a number of machines 
on the market which are built especially for work of this kind. One of 
the most satisfactory, perhaps, is that in which the balls of top are packed 
in a can around a central perforated spindle, through which the hot dye- 
bath is driven by means of a force pump. By this method the tops are col- 
ored 

Without Injury to the Sliver, 

and penetration is absolute with extremely level shades. After coloring, 
the tops are put through the back-washer and are then ready for the draw- 
ing process. It will be readily understood, even by the novice, that; dis- 
pensing with these operations, which may be done by the method of cross- 
Idjeing used in the production of the^e fabrics, will mean a considerable 
saving in the cost of manufacture, and give results that are extremely 
satisfactory. The yarns used, both for the ground and figure of this cloth, 
are spun from quarter-blood wools, and may be either foreign or domestic 
crossbreds. The greater part of the dress goods manufactured from this 
grade of stock is made from the South American and New Zealand cross- 
breds, as these wools are particularly well adapted for the production of 
fabrics of this type, and are not very desirable for making yarns for men's 
I wear purposes. 

The manufacture of domestic worsted dress goods is very extensively 
I confined to the larger corporations who are equipped with machinery to 
produce their own yarns from the raw stock. This enables them to elim- 
inate part of the expense incident to buying the yarns from outside spin- 
ners, and also enables them to have yarns of a uniform grade at all times, 
which would not be possible if they depended on worsted spinners for 
their requirements. Probably the strongest argument in favor of operating 
| their own spinning plant is the fact that by so doing they are enabled to 

Cut Out the Spinner's Profit 

and reduce their manufacturing costs by eliminating part of the expense 
incident to the operation of two independent organizations. While it is 
manifestly impossible to manufacture the yarns at a labor cost much less 
than that of the independent spinner, it is possible to reduce the overhead 
charges to an appreciable degree, and add part of his legitimate profits to 
the margin of profit on the goods. In o.-der that the manufacturer may earn 
good dividends for his mill, it is essential that his production should be 
well sold every season, and tbi-s result can only be realized by having his 



156 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

prices on a parity with other makers of similar lines, and in seasons of 
hard competition the 

Margin Between Cost 

and selling price becomes microscopic. It is in seasons like this that the 
ability of the management has its severest test. Every season there are 
many fabrics shown which, from the sellers' standpoint, are about equally 
desirable, but because of some particular feature connected with one of 
them, it is much more difficult to obtain a satisfactory production. In this 
case it is the manager who is thoroughly informed as to his organization 
and its capabilities who wins out. By a wise selection of fabrics he is 
enabled to run his plant on the styles that will show the largest net re- 
turns. 

Frequently a slight change in the size of yarns or construction will 
change a fabric from an unprofitable cloth to one that will show a good 
margin of profit. Then, too, it is possible to so change a style that the 
general effect and selling capacity will not be depreciated in the least, 
while its rate of production will be very materially increased, with a con- 
sequent lowering of the manufacturing cost. In the cloth under discussion 
the texture is relatively low, but the weave used for the background gives 
it an appearance of comparative fineness, which it would be impossible to 
obtain were a different weave used. The warp counts but 48 threads to 
the inch, and is dressed with six ground threads and two figure threads to 
the pattern. The filling has but 44 threads to the inch, six of ground and 
two for the figure, as in the warp. The figure is developed by floating the 
comparatively coarse ends in warp and filling over a portion of the ground 
in some places and at others by interlacing them with the ground threads. 
A great variety of styles may be made by the skilled designer even with 
the small number of threads used in this pattern, and by increasing the 
number of ends to the pattern and the harnesses the number of combina- 
tions possible with the 

Ordinary Harness Loom 

goes into the hundreds. If the jacquard head is called into play, the pat- 
terns become almost infinite in variety. To obtain the best results, the 
manufacture of the yarns is an extremely important feature, as this de- 
termines in a large measure the production of the looms. The yarns should 
be made from long-staple, well-grown wools, well sorted and scoured. In 
the drawing room there is a tendency to overdraft the sliver in order to 
lessen the number of operations, but such methods are not conducive to the 
best results and are to be avoided. 

Very common defects in worsted yarns are slugs or bunches on the 
yarn which require considerable time and labor to remove in the finishing 
room. Many of these are carried in the spinning room by the use of de- 
fective top rolls, those on which the leather covering has become worn in 
places, allowing the roving to pass through in lumps instead of being prop- 
erly drawn out. That imperfections of this sort may be reduced to a 
minimum, the frames should be inspected at frequent intervals and de- 
fective rolls replaced by others in perfect condition. This is even more 
essential when making the single yarn used for filling, as there is 

No Opportunity for Inspecting 
this and removing the imperfections before they are woven into the goods. 
The warps may be dressed on a dry frame and drawn in without slashing, 
as the use of two-ply yarns will obviate the necessity for this operation. 
After weaving, the goods are examined for imperfections and measured in 
the weave room, then taken to the burlers, where the knots are removed, 
slugs reduced and bits of foreign matter picked out. The menders will 
repl°ce all broken threads, repair damages caused by floats and imperfec 



' 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



157 



tions of other kinds. Next in order is the scouring operation, which is 
very important, as improper treatment in this process will be the cause 
of serious trouble in the dyehouse. The goods should be scoured with a 
pure, neutral soap, built up to sufficient strength with a pure, mild alkali. 
It should not be necessary, in the case of worsted goods, to use any harsh 



LAYOUT. 
2,592 ends; 10 reed, 4 in dent = 64.8" - 

1%" for listing = 66.3" over all. 
44 picks. 

DRESSED. 

Black 2 I 2 

White 6 6 



Black 
White 



FILLING. 



CALCULATIONS. 

6 4.8 ends 2/22 = 1.711 oz. + 5% 

" '3.'47*oz.' + 5% 
""11X66.3 



take-up 
1.944 ends 2/32 
take-up 



11 picks 2/22 = 



33 picks 1/24 



22X560-r-2-£-16 
33X66.3 



1.796 oz. 
3.548 oz. 
1.893 oz. 



Loom weight 



24X560h-2h-16 



= 2.604 oz. 



9.841 oz. 



COST. 

3.689 oz. 2/22 & black + 5% waste 

= 3.88 oz. @ 78c. per lb = $ .1891 

3.548 oz. 2/32 % white + 5% waste 

= 3.73 oz. @ 70c. per lb = .1631 

2.604 oz. 1/24 % white 4- 3% waste 

= 2.68 oz. @ 64c. per lb = .1072 



Cost of stock 

Manufacturing, 44 picks. 



Net mill cost 



$ .4594 
.2500 



.7094 



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DRAFT. 



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4 4 

3 3 

2 2 

1 1 



detergents, as the pieces contain but little in the way of impurities. It is 
very essential, however, that the pieces should be thoroughly cleansed and 
the soap entirely rinsed out. It will not be necessary to dry the goods, but 
give them five minutes in the extractor, and take them immediately to the 



158 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

continuous crabbing machine, which will put them in perfect condition for 
the dyeing. 

Cross-dyeing is not essentially different from the ordinary system of 
piece-dyeing, and is carried on in the regular piece-dye kettles. The chief 
feature to be considered is the use of dyes which wilr 

Not Affect the Color 
of the yarns previously dyed in the skein, which are introduced for deco- 
rative purposes, or, in the case of cotton or silk decorations, the use of 
drugs which have no effect on these fibres. In recent years there have 
been brought out a great variety of dyestuffs particularly adapted for this 
class of work, and which give practically perfect results if used with due 
care. The pieces are cooled off and rinsed in the tub, extracted and dried, 
then taken to the brush and given a run or two beiore shearing. The shear 
must not be set close, as it is not required to give the fabric an extremely 
clear finish; in fact, this would be impracticable, as close shearing would re- 
sult in clipping off part of the comparatively loosely woven figure threads. 
When sheared, a run on the dewing machine will prepare the pieces for 
pressing, after which they may be inspected and rolled up for market. 



CERISE CLOTH 

A very attractive novelty, which may be easily manufactured on looms 
capable of carrying a small number of harnesses and but two shuttles, is 
the "peau de cerise" here illustrated. The warp is dressed entirely of one 
color with two colors used in the filling, one of them the same shade as 
the warp, while the other is of a contrasting color forming a stripe on the 
face of the fabric. This method may be employed to make a great variety 
of stripes in various widths and in combinations of two, three or four colors. 
The principle on which this type of stripe is made is the use of a warp and 
ground filling with the addition of an 

Extra Filling to Form the Stripe. 
The fabric illustrated has a white warp drawn on four harnesses, with one 
pick of white and one pick of black in the filling. It is capable of develop- 
ment in all wool, cotton and wool, or may be made, as is our sample, from 
worsted and wool. It is absolutely essential that the filling forming the 
stripe be composed of wool, or it will not be possible to obtain the desired 
effect. 

The peculiar feature of the fabric illustrated is that the stripe is clean 
cut on both face and back, the only apparent difference being in the 
finish. The warp is made from a half-blood wool, spun on the French sys- 
tem, with the worsted filling from the same stock. The black wool used to 
produce the colored stripe is spun from a nice. 

Twelve Months' Texas Wool, 
which is particularly well adapted to this type of fabric. The wool is fine, 
and has rather more serrations than many other types, giving it pecul- 
iar felting properties, which are features that especially fit it for pro- 
ducing the desired finish. 

To obtain the best results and make all the profit possible, the manu- 
facturer should have not only the equipment for weaving, but also worsted 
and wool yarn making machinery. Unless all the yarns required are made 
by the weaver, the margin of profit will be extremely small. The worsted 
yarns may be purchased in the open market by a weaver who has machin- 
ery for making the wool filling, but such a course is not to be recommended, 
as the use of single worsted warps by those not accustomed to weaving 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 159 

them is usually attended with considerable difficulty and results in the 
making of a large percentage of seconds, or goods that require an excessive 
number of allowances. Concerns that engage extensively in the manufac- 
ture of fabrics which require the use of single worsted for warp purposes 
are usually equipped with machinery particularly adapted for that kind 
of work. 

Instead of using a wet dressing frame, which of necessity must be 
operated at a relatively slow speed, the 

Warps Are Dressed on a Dry Frame 

and sized on a machine known as a slasher. By so doing, a considerable 
amount of time is saved, for instead of operating at a slow speed, as would 
be necessary to dry each section individually on the dresser, the entire 
width of the warp is sized and dried in one operation. The slasher is a 
machine slightly wider than the warp is laid out in the loom. It consists 
in the main of a size box with rolls letween which the warp passes, and 




Cerise Cloth. 

which remove the excess size by pressure. From the squeeze rolls the 
moist threads are conveyed by means of small tin rolls between steam 
coils that thoroughly dry them before they pass out of the machine and 
are wound on the loom beam. Between the slasher and loom beam, it is 
customary to place a reed, through which the threads are drawn, and in 
this way they are kept in their correct position. This method of making 
the warp produces a much 

Better Weaving Warp 
than one beamed directly from the dressing frame. The type of slasher 
described above is one of the most commonly used, though in some mills is 
found a machine more nearly approaching the type commonly found in 
cotton mills. The purpose of the machine is the same, but the drying is 
accomplished in a slightly different manner. In the latter type of slasher 
the threads pass around in contact with the major part of the circumfer- 
ence of a large steam-heated cylinder which thoroughly dries the yarn. 
The looms used are usually a light model of the Knowles type operated at 
a rate of speed somewhat less than is customary in mills making fabrics 
of all two-ply yarns. 

The wool tilling, which gives the cnaracteristic iinish of the cloth, must 
he made from a tine wool with good tilling qualities, and the twelve months* 
Texas possesses this to a remarkable degree, and is also of sufficient 
length to make a thread that will be strong and produce excellent work 
in everv department of the mill- The stock must be carefully sorted and 



160 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

well scoured. In many instances where trouble has been encountered in lat- 
er processes, the source of the difficulty has been 

Traced to the Scouring Department. 
There are several things connected with this department that may cause 
untold difficulty in subsequent operations. There are many mill managers 
who seem to hold the opinion that wool scouring is such an extremely sim- 
ple process that it requires no particular skill or intelligence on the part 
of the operative. In reality, it is one of the most important processes 
through which the stock passes in its manipulation into the finished fab- 
ric. During the scouring, through lack of care on the part of the man in 
charge, the fibre may become so injured that it will be totally unfitted for 
the purpose for which it was intended, or it may be found impossible to 
spin it to the counts desired. This may seem incredible to those not fa- 
miliar with the physical structure of the wool fibre, but many manufac- 
turers have learned it to be a fact in the school of experience. The 

Use of Impure Detergents, 
an excess of alkali in the scouring bath, maintaining too high a tempera- 
ture during the scouring, or the use of hard water, each of these will 
have a very deleterious effect on the stock, if, indeed, it is not absolutely 
ruined. Harsh treatment in the dry room, too, will materially affect the 
working properties of the wool, cause it to become harsh and brittle, liable 
to break easily in the carding and to lose the kindly feel so much desired 
in the finished goods. If possible, the wool should be dried without the aid 
of artificial heat, or by the so-called cold air process. Fabrics made from 
wool so dried will finish up with a much better touch than is possible to 
obtain with wool which is dried too rapidly by means of a high temperature. 
Next in order is the dyeing, and for the fabric analyzed there is nothing 
better in the realm of dyestuffs than the old reliable 

Logwood or Hematine Black. 
The stock is prepared with a chrome mordant and afterward colored with 
hematine. There is no disputing the fact that this method is slow and 
laborious, but where is the one dip black that has the beauty and bloom of 
the shade obtained in this manner? When thoroughly dry the stock is 
ready for the picker. In order that the stock may be easily carded, it is 
necessary that a lubricant of some kind be applied, as the natural oil con- 
tained in the wool in its original condition has been removed by scouring. 
As to the best oil to use, or perhaps it would be better to say, the most 
satisfactory oil, from the viewpoint of efficiency and economy, there is a 
considerable diversity of opinion, and it is not within the scope of this 
article to exploit any particular brand. In order to apply the oil as evenly 
as possible, it is customary to mix it with water and emulsify by the ad- 
dition of a small quantity of some mild alkali. This emulsion is applied 
while warm and beaten into the wool with a long stick to secure penetra- 
tion of the entire mass. Sufficient emulsion should be applied to give the 
proportion of four quarts of oil per hundred pounds of wool, which on stock 
of this character will be found to give excellent results. After oiling and 
mixing, the stock should be kept in a cool room, not too dry, in order to 
prevent undue evaporation. Carding and spinning should not present any 
difficulty with clear stock of this grade, well prepared in the picker house. 
The preparation of the warps will require considerable care, as under the 
best of conditions single warps are apt to weave as well as those made 
from two-ply yarns. To insure good work in the looms, the warps must 
be well sized with a material that will hold all the loose fibres to the thread 
so as to prevent chafing during the weaving operation. With poor siz- 
ing materials it will be found extremely difficult to secure a good pro- 
duction in the weave room or goods that may be finished without ex- 
cessive expense in the mending department. 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 161 

Goods of this character may be woven on the double loom system very 
readily, as the fineness of the filling will require the changing of the shut 
ties with comparative infrequency, thus allowing the operative plenty of 
time to see that perfect work is being made. Burling and sewing should 
be thoroughly done, with an inspection by the percher to see that the girls 
are not slighting these important items. The wet finishing is a 

Very Important Process 

in the production of any kind of goods, and in this case is possibly the 
most critical operation of all. On the treatment in this department de- 
pends the success or failure of the effort to produce a satisfactory fabric. 
In order to avoid any danger of impairing the appearance of the white 
stripe, it would be advisable to scour the pieces before they are taken to 
the fulling mills. The scouring is an operation which requires consid- 
erable care. The pieces are placed in the 'machine with an end of each 
through a "pol eye" or guide, which compels them to assume the form 
of a rope. In this shape they run between two heavy, hard-wood rolls, 
which squeeze the soap, water and dirt out u t the goods. A run of 20 to 
30 minutes in warm soapsuds, with one-half to three-quarters of an hour's 
rinsing should leave the goods perfectly clean. They should then be ex- 
tracted and dried before fulling, though many finishers consider that it is 
unnecessary to dry after scouring, if the goods are to be fulled immediately. 
Much depends on conditions found in the various mills and also on the 
fabrics to be finished. In the case of heavy goods a thorough extracting 
may be sufficient, but with very light goods there is danger of running 
them too wet if the drying is dispensed with at this point. A soaping ma- 
chine, which will give equal distribution of soap to all parts of the piece, 
is well-nigh indispensable on light fabrics which require but a short time 
in the mill. If soap is applied in the ordinary manner, by means of the 
soap boxes at the back of the mills, there is great danger that it will not 
reach equally all parts of the pieces, and uneven fulling will be the re- 
sult. The soap used should be of some standard make, with a fairly gool 
body and absolutely neutral. In extremely warm weather it may be neces- 
sary to open the doors of the falling mill to prevent excessive heatirg of 
the pieces. The result aimed for is to secure a good close felt on the 
)ieces which will appear smooth and lustrous when finished. When well 
felted the goods are washed, extracted, and taken to the 

Nappers Without Drying. 

Inless the pieces contain a considerable amount of moisture, the napping 
all be a failure, as the action of the teasels, or wire, on a dry fabric, in- 
stead of producing the desired effect, which is a close, smooth, well laid 
lap, will result in forming a rough, uneven surface that it will be impos- 
sible, by subsequent treatment, to put into Rroper condition to permit of 
jiving the finish desired. By means of the moisture contained in the goods 
the fbres are rendered soft and pliable, so that they are easily combed 
jut into a thick, velvety felt, without tearing them loose from the body of 
the fabric. The method of producing the nap on the surface of the fabric 
has been changed materially from the tedious process known to our ances- 
tors. In the olden times it was customary to stretch the goods between two 
supports and teasel them by hand, an extremely slow and laborious opera- 
tion, and one which gave uneven results. Then came the single cylinder 
ig, which consisted essentially of a large cylinder, with suitable means 
for fastening the teasels to its surface and rolls, by means of which the 
Jloth could be made to pass up and down in contact with the teasels. 
Later, the double cylinder gig was introduced with guide rolls working on 
rack and pinion. By means of this improvement, it was possible to give 
four contacts with the napping surface during the passage of the cloth 
through the machine. Then came the invention of the wire napper, which 



162 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

enables the work to be done in a fraction of the time that it formerly took, 
and means for changing the speed of the napping rolls so that the action 
may be severe on goods requiring harsh treatment, or gentle enough for 
treatment of the finest broadcloths. 

Even to-day there are many finisners who consider that the final treat- 
ment of the goods should be with the teasel gig, claiming it is possible to 
secure results that are impossible of attainment with the wire napper. 
The final laying of the nap, after treatment on the cropping shear, to clip 
off the irregularities, is by means of the wet gig or brush. This machine 
in appsarance is very similar to the ordinary gig. The lower roll, on 
which the cloth is wound, is a perforated cylinder with both steam and 
water connections, so that either steam or water can be forced through 
the fabric while on the roll. By alternately 

Forcing Steam and Cold Water 
through the pieces they are given a luster similar to a piece of silk. The 
use of a hydro extractor should be dispensed with after the nap has been 
well laid and the luster developed and the water driven out by means of 
a substitute which will give excellent results. To avoid disturbances of 
the nap, which results from the use of the ordinary type of extractor, the 
pieces are wound on a 12-inch screen covered cylinder which may be re- 
volved at a high rate of speed, which throws out the water by centrifugal 
force, but leaves the goods in perfect condition for the dryer, and with- 
out a wrinkle. The rolls are placed in a rack on wheels and taken to the 
dryer. When dry they should be brushed, pressed, examined and rolled up 
for market. 

LAYOUT. 
3,168 ends; 15 reed, 3 in dent = 79.4" 4- 

iy 2 " for listing = 71.9" over all. 
S6 picks. 
Dressed 1/30 white worsted, 11 

spools, 4S ends = 528 

*6 

*Sections. 3,168 

Pilling, 1/30 white worsted... 1 I 1 

6 run black wool . . 1 I 1 



2 
CALCULATIONS. 
3,168 ends 1/30 white = 3 02 oz. + 

1% take-up = 3.24 oz. 

71.9 X 43 

43 picks 1/30 whit3 = — = 2.94 oz. 

30X560-H16 
71 9X43 

43 picks 6 run black = = 5.1b oz. 

600 

Loom weight 11.33 oz. 



6.18 oz. 1/30 + 5% waste = 6.5 oz. 
@ 82c. per lb — 


$ 


.3331 


5.15 oz. 6 run + 15% waste = 6.06 


.2475 




$ 


.5806 
.4000 




$ 


.980* 


12 harness, straight draw. 

H ■□■nV" , BOBDBa worsted 
g DDIBOGBBH '□ wool 

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CROSS-DYED WORSTED SUITINGS 

For many years the production of goods composed entirely of worsted 
in colored patterns was considered Impossible except by means of using 
either skein-dyed or stock-dyed yarns. With the improvements in the art 
of dyeing, and experiments carried on by manufacturers and. chemists, it 
was found that by using part of the yarns skein-dyed in fast colors it was 
possible to piece-dye the goods, thus obtaining many color combinations 
without increasing the number of skein-dyed yarns to any material ex- 
tent. As time went on, and the chemistry of dyeing became better under- 
stood, the possibility of so treating a thread after dyeing that it would be 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 163 

immune to further coloring became the subject of no little study, 
with the result that the process commonly termed "resisting" was devel- 
oped and is s^sceptiLue oi giving extremely satisfactory results, ii per- 
formed in the proper manner. By a long series of experiments it was deter- 
mined that certain coloring materials might be used for dyeing the yarns, 
which, when given a chemical treatment, would 

Not Materially Alter in Shade 

during the subsequent piece-dyeing. This discovery rendered it possible to 
manufacture a great variety of fabrics on the two-loom system that hith- 
erto had required a weaver for each loom, and also appreciably affected the 
production, as it is well known that yarns in the grey run much better in 
the loom than either skein of slub-dyed threads. Imperfections are fewer, 
partly for the. reason mentioned and also from the fact that the operative 
can more easily see and remedy them on white goods. An additional in- 
centive to the manufacturer to use this system is that the white waste 
produced is more readily salable and at materially better prices than can 
•be obtained for colored wastes. The 

Most Important Features 
connected with this type of work are: 1. Selection of the proper dyestuffs 
for the resisted thread. 2. Careful and correct treatment during the re- 
sisting process. 6. selection oi Ujestuffs ior tiie piece-dyeing that are 
least liable to affect the resist. If these details are given the attention of 
the toei - , there will be no trouble in obtaining extremely satisfactory re- 
sults. There are a variety of dyestuffs which may be used on this class of 
work, and each dyer will select those which he considers suitable for his 
needs from the offerings of the various concerns from whom he is accus- 
tomed to order his drugs. The dyeing of the shades on yarns to be re- 
sisted is accomplished in the customary manner, either in a hand tub or 
a suitable machine. The yarn should be rinsed, then extracted, and is 

Ready for the Resist Bath. 
To obtain the best results the chemicals used should be of standard 
quality. A formula used in some of our large mills with excellent re- 
suits is as follows: Dissolve 30 per cent tannic acid (F.R.C.P.) in water and 
work the yarn at the boil three-quarters of an hour, and allow to remain 
o\ernight entirely immersed in the same liquor, then drain, but do not 
wash. In a second tub prepare a bath with 8 per cent antimony salts (10 
per cent if the bath is long, that is, an excess of water). Work the yarn 
for fortj ii\e minutes with the bath at 130 degrees Fahrenheit, then drain 
off and prepare a new bath with 14 per cent tin crystals and 6 per cent 
muriatic acid (HC1). Work for forty-five minutes at 140 degrees Fahren- 
heit, then drain off without washing and dry. It may appear to some dyers 
that it is not advisable to allow the yarns to remain in the tannic acid bath 
so long, but an experience of several years has led to the conclusion that 
superior results are obtained in this manner. Whatever the system used, 

It Is of the Utmost Importance 
that the same routine be followed with every batch or it will be absolutely 
impossible, to secure uniform results, and the finished goods will be far 
from satisfactory. The yarn when dry is wound on six-inch spools, and 
may then be transferred to jack spools, or used as the exigencies of the 
case require. Should the mill have an equipment for worsted spinning, it 
would be well to spool the colored yarns on a spool with the grey, if the 
pattern does not require the use of a full spool of fancy yarn. 

The dressing will not require the use of a wet frame, as the yarns are 
of sufficient strength to weave without difficulty in the absence of any size. 
In the weave room it is advisable to provide each weaver with two waste 



164 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

boxes, one for the colored waste and one for the white, as this will obviate 
the necessity of sorting the waste after it is collected. When woven, the 
pieces are perched and measured, every imperfection marked with a chalk 
free from grease or any impurity which will be difficult to remove in the 
scouring process. The use of an inferior chalk has caused no little trouble 
at various times, particularly if the goods are dyed to a comparatively light 
shade. The writer has seen many pieces on which the chalk marks were 
plainly discernible after finishing, due to some impurity in the crayon or 
the use of one that had by some means come in contact with oil. The pieces 
are perched a second time, the percher standing so that the cloth passes 
between a good light and the eye; for in this way mispicks, threads out, 
etc., are very easily discovered. The picks should also be counted at inter- 
vals of a few yards, to make sure that the weavers are not producing cloth 
of a lower texture than it should be, and incidentally receiving more pay 
than they should have for the actual texture of the goods. 

The burlers must carefully remove all the knots and biis of foreign mat- 
ter, taking care not to break the knots too short, lest the ends shrink back 
during subsequent processes, leaving the defect known as "pin holes," which 
will need to be repaired by the sewers. They should also be provided with 
chalk to mark all imperfections which have escaped the observation of 
the percher, so that the sewers may devote their whole time to repairing dam- 
ages, as it is costly to waste time in looking for places needing the atten- 
tion of their needle. All hard twist ends, cable threads and wrong colors 
must be removed and replaced with perfect yarns. 

Threads Out and Mispicks 

must be sewn in and slugs reduced or replaced by a new thread, floats and 
other imperfections repaired, so that the finished cloth may leave the mill 
as nearly perfect as is humanly possible. The finishing room, in many ways, 
is the most important in the whole mill, as it is here that the imperfect 
work of the other departments is developed and brought to light, requiring 
no little skill to remedy it, which is many times an impossibility. Lack 
of skill in the treatment of fabrics in the washer, the fulling mill, or the 
crabbing machine will so affect them as to require their being sold as sec- 
onds, while if properly taken care of in the finishing room, the conscientious 
work of a competent man will, in many instances, add several cents a yard 
to the selling price of the fabric. The finishing of resist-dyed fabrics does 
not differ essentially from the process used for ordinary piece-dyed goods. 
When ready for scouring, the pieces are placed in the common type of wash- 
er, through which they pass in rope form, between two heavy rock maple 
rollers, which effectually cleanses them. The first bath is made up with 
about two pails of soft soap to the piece, and sufficient warm water to sub- 
merge the greater part of the cloth. After twenty to thirty minutes' treat- 
ment in this bath, the dirty suds are run off, and the pieces rinsed for one-half 
to three-quarters of an hour, or until every trace of soap is removed. It is 
very essential that goods for piece-dyeing 

Should Be Absolutely Clean 
and free from soap, or the dyeing will be extremely difficult. In fact, the 
majority of instances of shady goods may be traced directly to improper 
handling in the wet finishing. From the washers the pieces may be taken 
direct to the crabbing machine. There is considerable difference of opinion 
among finishers as to the relative merits of the old-style two-hole York- 
shire crab and the newer type of continuous crabbing machine, but for these 
fabrics, the latter type is growing in favor very rapidly, and is used by 
several of the larger mills that specialize on cross-dyed cloths. The advan- 
tages are in part the increased production and the elimination of a large 
part of the labor incident to the use of the old-style machine. From the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



166 



crabbing machine the pieces may be taken direct to the dyebouse and col- 
ored in kettles holding from four to sixteen pieces. 

The dyeing will require the use of special colors adapted particularly for 
this class of work. At the present time, the necessary drugs may be pur- 
chased from any of the reliable houses, they having tested out a series of 
colors that will not affect the resisted threads. Before using a new lot of 
resisted yarn for warps, a small sample should be sewed into the end of 
a piece to be colored, besides a sample of the original. In this way it is 
possible to determine just how it will appear when used in the goods. It 
is good practice to require the dyer, when he considers the shade correct, to 

Submit a Small Sample Before 
the kettle is drawn off. This may be dried and run through the press, then 
compared with a reference sample, and if pronounced satisfactory, the ket- 
tle is drawn off and the piece dried. When dry, the pieces are brushed and 
sheared, then taken to the fine sewers, who will repair any damages that 
have not previously been attended to. Before pressing, give a run on the 
dewing machine, as the finish is made more permanent by such treatment. 
A final inspection after pressing, comparison with reference sample for 
shade, and the goods are ready to be rolled up. The method of cost figuring 
given with this fabric is a form in general use in many mills, and is worthy 
of adoption, as it gives even better results than the method of figuring by 
the yard. In this system the total yarns required for a piece are figured, 
and may be easily verified by weighing the loom beam empty than when 
the warp is beamed. 



LAYOUT. 
3.210 ends 12y 2 reed-4 per dent=65" + l%" 

list.ing = 66 1 / 4" over all. 
46 picks 2/24. 

Dressed 64 yards, woven 60 yards, finished 
59 yds. 

2,808 ends 2/22 white 
108 ends 2/24 cable twist (white) 
324 ends 2/22 resist 



324X64 
22X560-H2 
46X66.5X60 
24X560H-2 



= 3.42 lbs. 



27.5 lbs. 



95 cents — 3.25 
76 cents = 20.90 



3% "Waste 



$47.68 
1.41 



3,240 

2,808X64 

22X560-^-2 
108X64 

24X560-J-2 



Cost of stock $49.09 



COST. 
= 29.2 lbs. @ 



75 cents =$21.90 
79 cents = 1.63 



49.09-f-59 yds. finished 
Labor and incidentals 

Net mill cost 
8 harness straight draw. 
4 harness twill. 



$.832 per yard. 
.275 



$1,107 



COTTON WARP SHIRTING FLANNELS 

A fabric that is of especial interest at this time is the cotton warp flan- 
nel. The new tariff rate, which went into effect January 1, may make a 
material difference in the prospects of mills manufacturing fabrics of this 
type, as it is generally conceded that the foreigner is an expert in the pro- 
duction of woolen goods without the use of wool. Fabrics similar to that 
here analyzed were, not many years ago, the regular production of several 
of our smaller mills, and, indeed, there were some mills of considerable size 
that made a specialty of cotton warp cloths. In recent years the market 
for cotton warp men's wear has grown less and less each year, with the re- 
sult that at the present time there are 

Comparatively Few Mills 
engaged in the production of such goods. There is still a moderate demand 
for shirtings of this character, and we here present the analysis of an 8^- 



166 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

ounce cloth of this description. As a general proposition, it is safe to say 
that these fabrics are produced by specialists; that is to say, the plants are 
fitted with machinery particularly adapted to the manufacture of these 
cloths, and the whole plant was laid out and arranged with this in mind. 
The warps of single cotton are invariably purchased on the loom beam, 
ready for drawing-in and require nothing in the way of preparatory machin- 
ery. The filling is prepared from nothing but rag stock, involving the use 
of absolutely no new wool. Mills specializing on these fabrics are equipped 
with rag pickers, lumpers, dusters, etc., and invariably purchase the raw ma- 
terials in the form of rags, rather than in the prepared state. The rags are 
• graded as to quality and colors, the light shades laid aside for making the 
light-colored goods and the dark clips picked for filling to make the darker- 
colored cloths. After sorting, the rags are laid out on the floor of the mix- 
ing room, a layer of rags possibly four to six inches thick, upon which an 
emulsion of oil is sprinkled to assist in the picking operation. On top of 
this another layer of rags which receives a sprinkling of oil, and so on, until 
the batch is complete. In many mills it id customary to shut up the oiled 
rags, and allow them to stand for a few days to secure thorough penetration 
of the whole mass by the oil, when they are laid out in front of the picker 
and prepared for the cards. A not uncommon arrangement is to have two 
or three pickers discharge into a common gauze room for the stock which 
is used in quantity, while a suitable arrangement is provided whereby one 
or more may discharge into a separate room if stocks of different colors or 
grades are to be run simultaneously. The emulsion used on the rags is usu- 
ally prepared by mixing equal parts of oil and water, emulsified with a mild 
alkali, using from twelve to fifteen quarts to each hundred pounds of 
rags. The raw stock is shredded into fibre form by means of a rag picker, 
a machine consisting essentially of a travelling feed apron, fluted feed rolls, 
a main cylinder, and a funnel at the back to conduct the shoddy from the 
machine. The cylinder, the 

Most Important Feature 

of the machine, is enclosed in the frame work and is built in various sizes, 
a very common size being 18 inches long and 42 inches in diameter, con- 
taining from twelve to fourteen thousand iron teeth. The usual speed is 
from 650 to 800 revolutions per minute. 

The rags are fed to the travelling apron, conveyed to the feed rolls, and 
on emerging from them are engaged by the teeth of the cylinder, which 
tear them into a fibrous, woolly mass which is discharged into the gauze 
room. Any hard lumps or pieces of cloth not thoroughly torn to pieces fall 
into a receptacle suitably provided, and are again placed on the feed apron 
for a further operation. The upper feed roll is maintained in position by 
springs, which, in case of overloading, permit the roll to rise, delivering the 
rags to the cylinder and preventing choking of the machine. Carding and 
spinning are performed on the same type of machinery used in the produc- 
tion of ordinary woolen yarns, except that in the majority of instances the 
first breaker card is 

Provided With a Metallic Breast. 
This consists of a set of rolls covered with steel-toothed clothing, which re- 
duce the bits of thread to fibre, which have not been thoroughly opened by 
the action of the picker. The weaving is invariably on the two-loom system 
and requires no description. In finishing this type of fabrics, it is cus- 
tomary, in the case of the heavier weights, to give them a thorough treat- 
ment on the wire napper before fulling and to full in the grease. The light 
weights similar to the fabric under analysis will not need this preliminary 
treatment, but may be taken to the fulling mills immediately after burling. 

The soap used must be full-bodied and will require a considerable 
strengthening with alkali, as the goods contain a much greater proportion 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 167 

of impurities than fabrics composed entirely of wool. From the fulling mills 
the pieces are taken direct to the washing machine and well scoured with 
warm water. It will probably require rinsing and a second soaping to thor- 
oughly cleanse the goods. From the washer the pieces may be taken to the 
dyehouse without extracting and colored with a union dye which will color 
both wool and cotton a uniform shade, at the same time covering up any 
specks of vegetable matter contained in the stock. When colored, the goods 
are cooled off and rinsed in the dye kettle, extracted and dried. A few runs 
on the brush will put them in condition for the shear. The fly blade must 
not be set too low, as all that is required is to even up the nap, and too close 
shearing will destroy the desired effect. Unless a certain amount of nap 
is left on the face of the goods, the cotton warp will be too apparent and the 
handle be materially impaired. A light brushing is required before press- 
ing, then a final inspection and the goods are ready for market. 

LAYOUT. COST. 

! 240 ends: reed 8% — 4 = 66". 2.86 oz. cotton + 2% waste = 2.92 

56 picks. oz. @ 22c. per lb = $ .0400 

CALCULATIONS. 10.53 oz. filling 4- 20% waste = 

2,240 ends 1/16 cotton = 2.67 oz. + 13 - 16 oz ' ® 8VzC - per lb = _0699 

10% take-up = 2.86 oz. n»»* «c „*„„i, * in.m 

36X66 Cost of stock $ .1099 

36 picks 2% run = — — = 10.53 oz. Manufacturing, 36 picks = -0800 

Loom weight .f 25 13.39 oz. Net mill cost $.1899 

SelMng price 26 cents net. 
4 harness, straight draw. 
Plain weave. 



FANCY NUB CHEVIOT 

labrics of this type have been ertremely popular for use in children's 
suits and overcoats for some years. In the recent past they have been used 
extensively for men's raincoats and topcoats, making a particularly stylish 
garment, one that retains its shape and is of but little weight. Fabrics 
used for children's wear are usually made from relatively fine yarns, with a 
small nub, while the overcoating cloths are rrade from coarse yarns dec- 
orated with nubs of considerably larger size. The yarns used in the finer 
cloth are usually made from a medium grade of wool spun to about three 
run. The nubs are rrade from a short, curly wool, usually the scoured and 
carbonized defective Californias, as these are ideal for rolling in nubs. A 
few years ago it was customary for the carder who was about to make 
nubs, or knickerbocker as it was often called, to screen off a set of cards, 
so that no one might have an opportunity to learn the method employed 
in making the nub. At that time it was a process understood by compar- 
atively few carders, and it is probably safe to say that, even at the pres- 
ent time, there are carders in some of our mills who have never made nubs 
or have never seen them made. 

The process is extremely simple, requiring nothing in the way of ac- 
cessories or attachments to the ordinary first breaker card. The 

Method of Procedure 
followed by most carders is to set off the doffer comb, or remove it entire- 
ly, raise the workers by placing under the bearings in the poppet head a 
piece of leather cut from an old belt and set off the doffer possibly an eighth 
of an inch. The wool is placed in the self-feed as for ordinary carding, 
and the machine started. Instead of the carding process which usually 
takes place, the wool is rolled into small pills or nubs, which fall to the 



168 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 





Overcoat Made from Fancy Nub Cheviot. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 169 

floor at the delivery end of the card. The size of the nub is changed by 
the varying thicknesses of the leathers under the worker bearings. It is 
common practice to make the nubs in the white and afterward dye them 
to the desired color. This method is pursued in order to avoid cleaning the 
card between lots of various colors. The finished nubs are dyed in the 
ordinary open wool-kettle with a false bottom. To avoid having the nubs 
pass through the holes in the false bottom, many dyers take the precaution 
of covering the bottom of the dye-kettle with burlap. If it is desired to 
have the nubs retain their form to the fullest extent when in the goods 
they may be hardened somewhat by fulling. 

To accomplish this they are placed in a bag, wet up with soap solu 
tion and put into an old type 

Pusher Mill 
or into falling stocks. The modern type of rotary fulling mill is not as well 
adapted to this work, although it may be used by sewing up a tube of bur- 
lap or other fabric, placing the nubs inside and running in the mill for a 
short time in a similar way to a piece of cloth. Nubs so treated will not 
lose their shape to any great extent in subsequent operations.. 

There are different methods in vogue of putting the nubs into the yarn, 
but the one in most common use, probably, is to mix them with the stock 
at the picker. This method has been found to give excellent results in mill 
practice, while the method, used in few instances, of introducing them on 
the finisher card is apt to give rather uneven results. The wools used for 
the manufacture of such fabrics should be of good length, well scoured, 
and those to be used in the white should preferably be bleached, though if a 
careful selection is made in the sorting room, perfect results may be ob- 
tained without the bleaching process. It is essential that the stock should 
be thoroughly opened and mixed in the picker room, as it is obvious that, 
comparatively little carding can be done on such yarns if the nubs are to 
keep their shape and size. The workers must be set well off from the cyl- 
inder on the first and second breakers, those on the finisher may be some- 
what closer, but not sufficient to destroy the desired effect. 

In spinning, these yarns 

Do Not Require Special Treatment. 
The roving for the finer counts should be made about half draft, while 
that for the heavier counts will need to be relatively finer from the card. 
The spooling should be carefully attended to, knots tied in such a manner 
that they will not slip in dressing and weaving, spools be free from holes 
and slack ends. With yarn properly spooled, the dressing room should 
show an extremely high percentage of efficiency, as the warps may be 
dressed without size and the reel operated at a relatively high speed. 

The production per loom should be well over 80 per cent of the pos- 
sible output if the warp yarns are well made with filling properly spun. 
One great cause of low weave room production is the lack of care in the 
spinning room in making the filling. Frequently the yarns are not wound 
with sufficient weight on the counter faller to make a bobbin that will not 
knock off in the shuttle, causing a loss of time fof the weaver and an un- 
due amount of waste. The fixer can do much toward avoiding this trouble 
by proper adjustment of the power and the binder springs. A shuttle check, 
properly adjusted, will also assist materially in reducing the waste from 
this cause. It may be necessary to inform the burlers that the "specks" 
are intended to remain in the fabric, as an instance, well authenticated, is 
told of a new girl in the burling room working faithfully to remove all 
the colored nubs. There should be practically no sewing required on fab- 
rics of this type, and an inspection after burling may enable the finisher 
*:o send many pieces direct from the burling room to the fulling mills.. 



170 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

The greater part of these fabrics are fulled but little, probably not 
over an hour at the most. The soaps used should be of good quality and 
of sufficient strength to start the grease and dirt freely in the mills. Full 
to 56 inches, with no endwise shrinkage, and scour as soon as possible 
after removing from the fulling mills. If the soap used in fulling was of 
the 

Correct Consistency 
and strength it will not be necessary to add a further quantity in the 
washer. Run in warm water for 20 or 30 minutes, then rinse thoroughly 
before removing them for extracting. A very common mistake is made 
at this point in the finishing of nearly all woolen and worsted fabrics, that 
is, there is too great anxiety to get them dried in the shortest possible 
time, the result being that they are extracted more than they should be, 
going to the dryer without sufficient moisture to get the full effect of the 
drying operation, and dried too rapidly for the best results by means of an 
excessive temperature. The superior "feel" of a fabric dried in the open 
air is probably familiar to all of the older generation of manufacturers. 
This is not to be attributed to any greater virtue of the outdoor air, but 
simply to the fact that the goods are dried naturally, slowly and without 
excessive heat. It would be policy to operate the dryer overtime, or to in 
•crease its size rather than to secure greater capacity by raising the tem- 
perature in the drying chamber. When dry, the pieces are given a light 
run on the shear to remove the long hairs. Give a run on the dewing 
machine, press with a little steam on the face as they emerge from the cyl- 
inder. Roll up tightly and do not perch until next day. 

Used for Rainccatings. 

Many of these fabrics are made up into raincoats, and are waterproof- 
ed either by the manufacturer or buyer. The process of waterproofing is 
comparatively simple, and may be carried on at slight expense by the mill 
if it is so desired. The process consists of impregnating the fabrics with 
a mixture that repels the moisture. The methods in use in our mills may 
be classified as wet and dry. In the wet method, the proofing mixture is 
usually applied in the washer after the goods have been well rinsed, and 
consists of a solution of lead acetate and other chemicals. The dry method 
is accomplished by treating the fabric with a preparation of paraffin wax 
just prior to its entering the press, where the heat and pressure effect the 
thorough permeation of the fibre with the proofing mixture. A still later 
method consists of dissolving the wax and other materials in benzine and 
running the fabric through this bath, alterward recovering the benzine. 

LAYOUT. CALCULATIONS. 

2,160 ends; iy z reed, 4 per dent = 70" + 2,160 ends 3 run = 7.2 oz, + 10% 

1 W for listing = 71%" over all. take-up „V--;,;v = 800 oz - 

30 Picks. on • , , 30X71.5 

30 picks 3 run = — = 7.15 oz. 

300 



STOCK. 



85% med. wool @ 40c = $ .340 Loom weight 15.15 oz. 

15% nubs @ 50c = .075 Finished weight 13-13% oz. 

$ .415 COST " 

$.415 = 16-7- $.0259, cost an ounce. 15.15 oz. + 15% waste = 17.82 oz. 

@ $.0259 = $.4616 

Manufacturing, 30 picks = .2500 



$ .7116 



CHECKED CHINCHILLA 

This is a fabric especially adapted for the manufacture of ladies' and 
misses' short coats, and is produced in lighter weights than the chinchillas 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 171 

intended for men's wear. They are made in a variety of colors and different 
sizes of checks, one of the most popular styles being a white ground checked 
with light green, the pattern measuring three-quarters by one inch. The 
production of fabrics of this character in white grounds should not be under- 
taken by any mill unless they have preparatory departments that are en- 
tirely distinct and separate from each other. The operation of a set of 
cards on 

Colored Stock in the Same 
room with those running white stock cannot be successfully carried on, as 
the fly from the colored work will spoil the white or vice versa. 

Screening off a section of the room with burlap or other material will 
essentially assist in keeping the lots separate, but if the best results are to 
be obtained, it will be necessary to have a separate picker and card 
room for the white work. The extra labor involved in an attempt to keep 
the white free from specks and fibres of colored stock while making other 
goods and the extreme probability of making seconds would deter many 
mills from trying to make white cloths. That greater profits are to be 
made on such fabrics is true, but there are many features connected with 



Checked Chinchilla. 

their production that practically eliminate them from the lines of a great 
many of our mills that otherwise might be able to manufacture them 
successfully. In some cases the 

Natural Conditions 
will not allow of their production, the water may not be sufficiently pure, 
or the proximity of other manufacturing establishments may so fill the air 
with smoke and other impurities that it is impossible to keep the fabrics 
clean while in process. 

The stock used may be a straight wool or a blend of wool and noil, the 
latter producing, a fabric that will give excellent service and prove satis- 
factory to the wearer. Care in selection of the stock is essential, as the 
slightest discoloration in the wool will injure the salability of the goods. 
If noils are used they must be thoroughly carbonized and freed from im- 
purities of every kind before they are mixed with the wool. 

The stock used for the sample here described is a three-eighths territory 
blended with an equivalent grade of noil for both warp and filling. The 
lots are chosen particularly for their color and freedom from yellow tips. 



172 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

The sorting is not as important an item on these fabrics as in the case of 
fine cloths, but should not be slighted. 

Scouring Important. 
The scouring must be done with great care, as serious injury may be done 
the stock in this process, not only detracting from the spinning qualities 
of the wool but materially affecting the color. In order to obtain the best 
possible results the scourer must use only the best of materials for cleans- 
ing the wool. The soap should be tested for impurities of various kinds and 
for the presence of free caustic alkali. The presence of the latter is really 
a more serious affair than many of the other impurities, as most of them 
do no particular harm, aside from increasing the expense, while the free 
caustic has an extremely injurious effect on the structure of the wool 
fibre itself, and if present in sufficient quantity will entirely destroy it. 
Certain soaps also have a tendency to give the wool a slightly yellow tinge 
and should be carefully avoided, as it is desired to bring out the finished 
fabrics a pure snow white. Another factor, often lost sight of, is the fact 
that excessive heat in the drying 

Injures the Working Qualities 
of the wool and tends to give it a more or less pronounced yellow tinge. To 
obviate this, the cold-air method of drying should be employed. By this sys- 
tem the moisture is removed from the wool without the assistance of arti- 
ficial heat. The necessary appliances are a series of drying racks with en- 
closed bottoms. The wool to be dried is spread on the screens and air at the 
ordinary temperature is either drawn down through the wool by exhaust 
fans connected to the enclosed space under the screen, or preferably, the 
air is forced up through the wool. The latter method will give more rapid 
results, and leave the wool in somewhat better condition for subsequent 
operations, as the passage of the air in an upward direction tends to open 
the wool and make it more lofty. 

To secure absolutely even results at all times, it would be advisable to 
bleach the wool, as even with the greatest care it may be impossible to se- 
cure wools of even color at all times. The bleaching process in common use 
is not especially difficult, nor does it require an installation of expensive 
equipment. Of the ordinary methods, either the 

Peroxide or Bisulphite 
bleach may be carried on in an open dye-kettle, the former bleaching agent 
being one used in many mills with very satisfactory results. It is essential 
that the wool be perfectly clean and free from all fatty matter before treat- 
ment. The bath for 300 pounds of wool is prepared with: 400 gallons hot 
water, 10% pounds sulphuric acid, 9 pounds ammonium phosphate and 9V 2 
pounds sodium peroxide. A very important factor of success in the use of 
this method is the degree of alkalinity of the bath. In the majority of in- 
stances it will be found necessary to vary the bath to suit the stock to be 
bleached. Should the bath appear too strongly alkaline, a small quantity of 
phosphoric acid may be used to correct it, using litmus paper as an indi- 
cator. The proper alkaline condition is indicated by the bath showing a 
slight bluish tinge. Should the acidity of the wool neutralize 
the alkali, the addition of a small quantity of am- 
monia will restore the correct condition. The bath should be allowed 
to stand for 20 minutes before using, and the foam which forms on the sur- 
face must be skimmed off before entering the stock. 

This method requires more care and attention than the use of bisul- 
phite, for which a formula was published in another article. To retain the 
purity of color of the bleached stock will require the utmost care in every 
department. The picker must be free from every trace of colored fibres, and 
if a pneumatic conveyor system is used it should be thoroughly inspected 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 173 

and cleaned before it is used for the white wool. Have the floor of the picker 
house and the card room bins immaculate before starting the lot. Mix well, 
oil and give two runs through the mixing picker, then card carefully, mak- 
ing the roving slightly over half draft. This should insure work that will 
run well on the mules and produce a strong, even thread. Have the warp 
yarns well spooled, no holes, loose ends or long knots, and the dressing will 
proceed with no difficulty whatever. In preparing the looms for white warps 
the fixers should use due caution to 

Prevent Any Oil Dropping 

from the various moving parts to the warp or on the woven goods, and it 
may be necessary to caution the weavers about wiping the shuttle on the 
fabric. For this purpose it is well to wind a fairly wide heading around the 
breast beam near the shuttle changing end, on which the weaver may rub 
the shuttles to remove any dirt or oil that has collected. Burling should be 
carefully performed on every piece, and an inspection after burling may 
permit of many pieces going to the fulling mills without passing through 
the hands of the sewers. 

The fulling of white goods must not be attempted with an inferior soap, 
nor one that is built up with a harsh alkali or an injury to the color may 




Kinyon Bros. Whipping Machine. 

result. The soap should be of high grade, full bodied, built up with a mild 
alkali and of sufficient strength to saponify and hold in suspension through 
the fulling and scouring all the dirt and oil contained by the goods. Full to 
57 inches, scour with warm water for 20 to 30 minutes, then rinse thorough- 
ly, extract and place on the dryer. The napping necessary to cut the loops 
formed in weaving, which are later to be rubbed into the nubs or spirals, 



174 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

giving the characteristic appearance to the fabric, should be performed with 
the fabric damp, but not wet. In this condition the nap may be raised 
without undue waste of material. The amount of gigging required is depend- 
ent to a certain extent on the type of finish required, that is, the size of nub 
it is desired to form, though this is also governed considerably by the throw 
of the cams on the upright shaft of the chinchilla machine and the shearing. 
Many chinchillas are so constructed as to obviate entirely the necessity for 
fulling, particularly those intended for ladies' wear, as fulling tends to pro- 
duce a more boardy fabric than is desirable for such use. In this case the 
soap should not be of such heavy body as ordinary fulling soaps, but must 
be heavier than soaps usually made for scouring. A very satisfactory com 




Kinyon Bros. Chinchilla Machine. 

pcund for this purpose may be made with two ounces of pure neutral palm 
oil soap and three ounces of alkali per gallon of water. The 

Heavier the Soap Used 
the more time is required for removing it, and on these goes, as on all oth- 
ers, it is essential that every trace of soap be washed out. A good soap and 
plenty of warm water will accomplish the desired result. After washing, the 
goods are extracted and taken to the gig. 

This is, perhaps, the most important operation of the whole finishing 
process, as on the production of a full, heavy nap, well worked up from the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 175 

bottom so as to be free from streaks and cover the threads completely, de- 
pends the success of the subsequent operations. The use of the old fashion- 
ed up-and-down gig for this work is much to be preferred, as there is less 
danger of injury to the fabric. When the napping is about completed, the 
pieces are taken off and placed on the cropping shear. The omission of this 
operation will result in a lack of evenness which cannot be remedied in any 
other process. 

The shear should be fitted with a wire raising brush in order to ef- 
fectively perform its functions, and the laying brush should be removed. 
The shear should be in Al condition, so that one run will suffice to cut the 
nap evenly, all that is necessary being to 

Square the Nap, 
leaving as long as the type of finish demands. The goods are then again 
placed on the gig and the napping completed. In order to put the nap in the 
best possible condition for further processes the goods are run over a whip- 
ping machine before drying. The machine consists of a framework to 
which are attached 13 slender rods of tough wood, actuated by levers and 
cams. The fabric to be treated passes over the framework, face down, the 
rods beating on the back of the moving cloth, bringing the nap into an erect 
position. The whipping machine should be so arranged that the goods im- 
mediately go to the dryer with no handling or folding. A special type of 
dryer is used in which the goods come in contact with anything but the sup- 
porting pins at the sides. When dry, the. goods are again sheared, taking 
into consideration the size of "nub" desired. If a large nub is intended, the 
nap must be left long, while if a close, fine nub is required the cloth must 
be sheared closer. Uniform napping and even shearing are essential if the 
best results are to be obtained. 

The nubs are formed by the chinchilla or "Whitney" machine. The bed 
plate is rigidly fastened to the framework Of the machine about three feet 
from the floor, is of hard wood and covered with a good grade of Brussels 
carpet, firmly glued on. On each side of the plate is a roll covered with 
card clothing, serving to draw the cloth across the bed plate. Above the 
bed is another plate of similar shape and size, but made of cast-iron and 
covered with a solid plate of rubber cemented on the under side. This is 
termed the "follower," and may be raised or lowered by suitable chains and 
handle. The follower is driven by an upright shaft at each end, provided with 
cams to produce the various motions required for different types of finish. 
The machines are capable of 

Five Distinct Motions, 

each producing its special effect on the goods. The operation of the machine 
is comparatively simple. The piece is put on the bed, attached to both de- 
livery and take-up rolls, the follower lowered so as to touch the nap, the 
machine started and the nub begins to form immediately. On the ordinary 
grade of chinchillas, one run through the machine is all that is required, the 
backs are brushed and the piece is ready for the final inspection. On the 
finer grades the pieces are sheared after the first run, and the nubs cropped 
to the desired size. During this operation the raising brush must not be 
allowed to come in contact with the piece. A second run will give a fine, 
close nub, frequently called a "pin head." Brush on the back, examine care- 
fully to see th«t the nubs are even, measure, roll up and pack. 



176 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



1,560 ends 
iy 2 " for 
48 picks. 



60% wool 
40% noil 



LAYOUT. 
; 11 reed, 2 per dent = 
listing = 72 y 2 " over all. 



STOCK MIXTURE. 



@ 44c . 
@ 36c. 



.= $ .264 
= .144 



$.40S -h 1 

Dressed: 
2 y 2 run 
2% run 



% .408 
6 oz. = $.0205, cost an ounce. 



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1,560 



Filling: 

2% run green, H. T. .. 2 I 2 

lYi run white 1 I 23 

2% run white 1 I 23 

23X 48 

CALCULATIONS. 
1,560 ends 2% run = 6.24 oz. + 

10% take-up = 6.93 oz 

24 X 72.5 

24 pks. 2 i/ 2 run = = 6.96 oz. 

250 
24X72 5 

24 pks. 1 % run = — = 13.92 oz. 

125 

27.81 oz. 

COST. 

27.81 oz. + 15% waste = 32.72 oz. 

32.72 oz @ 2.05c = $ .6708 

Manufacturing, 48 picks = .3240 

Net mill cost $ .9948 



10 10 



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2% run. 
IVi run. 
Green. 
Green. 



PLAID BACK LLAMA OVERCOATING 

This fabric derives its name from the animal which produces the par- 
ticularly soft stock of which the face of the cloth is composed. The Llama, 
the Alpaca and the Guanaco are all indigenous to the mountainous regions 
of South America, the first two being species of the same family and pro- 
ducing quite similar fibres. The production of this stock is limited in quan- 
tity, and is used only in the manufacture of special fabrics, in which soft- 
ness and luster are combined. 

The fabric analyzed is finished with considerable nap, which, instead 
of being laid perfectly straight as in a zibeline or kersey, has a very per- 
ceptible ripple effect, the result of treatment on a special machine during the 
process of finishing. One of the chief reasons for the lack of success in op- 
erating our carded woolen mills is the aversion of many of our manufac- 
turers to 

Introduce New Machinery 
or new processes, particularly in the finishing room. They seem perfectly 
satisfied to follow the procedure mapped out by their predecessors, using 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 17 

in many instances machinery that should long since have been relegated to 
the scrap heap. The great wonder is that they have been able to survive 
until the present, the possibilities of making a profit having been eliminat- 
ed long ago. The progressive mill owner is ever on the alert to gain a 
knowledge of newer and more efficient methods of performing the various 
operations incident to the conversion of raw materials into finished mer- 
chandise, and to keep abreast of the times by 

Changing the Character 
of his product to conform to the ever changing demands of fashion. The 
idea that any machine which can be operated without danger of falling to 
pieces is good enough for the manufacture of woolens has apparently gov- 
erned the actions of many managers, with the inevitable result that the 
quantity and quality of production has steadily been reduced until it has 
reached the place where a relatively large expense for replacement of worn 
out machinery must be incurred in a short space of time that normally 
should have been distributed over a series of years. 

It is unfortunately true that most of the ills which have befallen the 
carded woolen industry may rightfully be attributed to the manufacturers 
themselves rather than to influences outside of the manufacturing end. The 
truth of this statement is borne out by a few notable exceptions which am- 
ply disprove the oft repeated remark of the incompetent that there is "no 
money in woolen manufacturing." 

Profits Dependent on Management. 

The returns from any form of manufacturing enterprise are more large- 
ly dependent upon the economical and efficient management of the plant 
itself than upon outside conditions, though there are exceptional periods 
when the highest type of management is unable to combat successfully a 
combination of conditions which tend to reduce profits to the vanishing 
point or even create a manufacturing loss. At such times the plant whose 
equipment and organization is thoroughly up-to-date in every particular 
is able to weather the storm with much less impairment of resources than 
its neighbor, who even in normal seasons has a struggle to show a balance 
on the right side of the profit and loss account. 

The foregoing does hot imply that in all cases the purchase of second- 
hand machinery is to be deprecated, as in many instances it is possible to 
secure from the second dealers machinery that is practically as good as 
new, or at least will 

Answer the Purpose 
fully as well. It must be understood, however, that if secondhand equip- 
ment is bought, it should be thoroughly inspected by an expert, and not 
taken merely on the dealer's statement as to its condition. A very common 
mistake in estimating the cost of fabrics is the making of too small an al- 
lowance for depreciation. This is frequently the case with a concern which 
has secured an old mill at a comparatively low price. It is customary to 
allow five per cent for depreciation, but this item must be materially In- 
creased if actual results are to be obtained, as five per cent on the pur- 
chase price will not form a reserve of sufficient size to replace the machin- 
ery when its days of efficient service are over. In no branch of the indus- 
try is the necessity for modern equipment and manufacturing ability mor< 
strongly apparent than in the production of novelties, and in no depart- 
ment of the textile field is there greater opportunity for the earning of a 
very satisfactory profit. To obtain the latter result it is essential that tlu 
organization at the mill should be competent to produce the fabrics, and 

More Important Still, 
that the selling organization, and particularly the styler, should be thor- 
oughly conversant with style tendencies, and have the ability to direqt the 



178 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

efforts of the designer toward the development of desirable fabrics, styles 
and colorings. The two organizations are interdependent and must co-op- 
erate if success is to be the reward of their efforts. 

To properly construct a fabric such as is here described the stocks used 
for the "shell" or face and the back must possess similar felting properties, 
as otherwise the two cloths will not work together in the fulling mills, and 
a cockly, unsatisfactory fabric will result. For this cloth the face filling 
mixture is made up from 60 per cent of a three-eighths territory clothing 
wool and 40 per cent of Alpaca noil, giving a softness to the fabric that is 
its chief characteristic. The face and back warp and back filling are made 
from a mixture containing 70 per cent of three-eighths wool and 30 per cent 
of fine shoddy. The wool must be well sorted and carefully scoured, the lat- 
ter process being carried on -with soaps and alkalis that will in nowise 

Detract from the Strength 

or working qualities of the fibre. Another very important feature of the 
scouring is the nature of the water used. It is a fact probably known to 
most, if not all, who are familiar with the handling of wool, that it is prac- 
tically impossible to satisfactorily cleanse the fibre if hard water is used in 
the scouring bath. This is due to the fact that the mineral salts contained 
in the water are disintegrated and uniting with the fatty matter in the 
soap, which is also decomposed, form an insoluble soap which is deposited 
on the wool in the form of a sticky, pasty substance, whose subsequent re- 
moval is attended with no little difficulty. Its entire removal is necessary, 
however, or future operations are rendered almost, if not quite, impossible. 
This is particularly true of dyeing, level stiades being an utter impossibil- 
ity on wools in this condition. If a supply of soft water is not obtainable it 
becomes necessary to soften the available supply by mechanical or chemical 
means. The cheapest 

Method of Softening Water 
for wool scouring is to precipitate the mineral compounds with caustic soda. 
To each 1,000 gallons of water from three to five pounds of caustic soda 
should be added, the quantity depending upon the degree of hardness of 
the water. Both temporary and permanent hardness are removed by this 
method, and equally good results are obtained with either hot or cold water. 
The lime, magnesium or iron salts are precipitated as insoluble compounds, 
leaving the water soft and in condition for use in wool scouring. In drying 
the wool, the mistake is frequently made of hastening the operation by in- 
creasing the temperature, which gives the wool a harsh handle that can- 
not be overcome in further processes. A better method is to increase the 
drying facilities or operate this department overtime. In the picker room 
the 

Mixing and Oiling 
of the lots must bo carefully attended to, or uneven and unsatisfactory yarns 
will result. In laying out the lots at the picker the various stocks should be 
placed in layers containing approximately the correct proportions of each,. 
and given a sufficient quantity of an emulsion made from an easily saponi- 
fied oil to properly lubricate the fibres during carding and spinning. The 
amount required will vary with the nature and quality of the stock, and the 
mixture used in the production of the fabric described should receive four 
quarts of oil per hundred pounds. 

The roving for the face filling should be made about two-thirds draft, 
and the finer yarns used in the balance of the cloth should spin well at 
half draft, making a strong, even thread. In building the chain for plaid 
backs, it might be well to read "risers" for "sinkers" and vice versa, so as 
to bring the back of the fabric uppermost in the loom, enabling the weaver 
to see the more intricate pattern without difficulty. This is nonessential. 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 179 

and mvst be governed by conditions existing in each individual mill. Should 
this be done, however, see that the twill on the back runs in the direction 
intended. When woven, the pieces should be inspected, measured and sent 
to the burlers. In this department all knots are removed, slugs and bits 
of foreign matter taken out and loose threads tightened up. Should there 
be filling drawn in at the sides, it should be carefully taken out by the 
burlers without disturbing the other threads. The sewers should have but 
little work on a fabric of this kind, as with well-made warp and filling 
breakage in the loom should be very slight. From the sewing room the 
pieces may be taken direct to the fulling mills and run into the mill single. 
As the fabrics are 

To Have a Soft Finish, 
the fulling should be accomplished as quickly as possible with this end in 
view. The longer a piece is fulled the more boardy it becomes, and this is 
an undesirable feature in fabrics of the character described. Full to 57 *£ 
inches in width, and transfer immediately to the washing machine. The 
scouring of the cloth is a chemical not a mechanical operation, though 
many finishers seem to have the latter idea of the proceps. The cleansing 
of the fabrics is accomplished by the chemical union of the soap with the 
grease and other impurities contained in the fabric, and for this reason it 
is necessary to use a soap of sufficient strength to emulsify and hold in sus- 
pension the impurities during the operations of fulling and scouring. If 
the soap is of the proper body and strength, its vitality should not be ex- 
hausted in the fulling, and no further quantity need be added during the 
scouring. Run for half an hour in warm water, and then rinse thoroughly un- 
til every trace of soap is removed. Extract moderately, and place immedi- 
ately on the up-and-down gig. 

The napping operation is one which, while 

Apparently Very Simple, 
requires much care if the best possible results are to be obtained. The 
process should be started with old work, then a few slats removed and 
sharper work substituted, and finished with every slat full of new work. 
When a thick, full nap has been raised, give a run on the cropping shear 
to square the nap and then dry the pieces. When dry, place on the Whit- 
ney machine and give one run to obtain the peculiar ripple effect. If it is 
desired to finish the back of the fabric with -a semivelour effect, the back 
should be napped while the pieces are wet and before the face has had any 
work, then nap the face and crop both sides before drying. The goods re- 
quire no further treatment after the passage through the rippling process, 
but are ready to inspect and roll up. 

LAYOUT. 1%" for listing = 73%" over all. 

4,040 ends; 13 reed, 4 per dent = 72" +70 picks. 



Dressed: 



3 times. 



Dark brown. 1191 I II I II I II I II I II 1X31241 I II I II I II I 11 1 11 1761 I 178 

Red 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I 18 

Green I I 1| I 1 I l| I l! i II I U I I 6 



202 
2 



404 
•10 



♦Sections. 4.040 

Filling: 3 times. 



Dark brown. I 1| I X | I 11 I 11 I X | I 11 1121251 I 1| I II I 1) I 1| I 1| 11081 I 192 

Red I 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I 18 

Green | 1 1 1 | 1| | 1| I 11 II 6 



180 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



STOCK MIXTURE. 
Warp and back filling: 

70% % territory & 44c = $ .308 

30% fine shoddy @ 20c = .060 

$ .368 
Face filling: 

60% % territory @ 44c "= $ .264 

40% alpaca noil <g> 48c = .192 

$ .456 
CALCULATIONS. 
4,040 ends 4 run = 10.1 oz. 4- 10% 

take-up = 11.22 oz. 

35X73.6 

35 pks. 2y 2 run face = ■ — = 10.30 oz. 

250 
35X73.6 

35 pks. 4 run back = = 6.44 oz. 

400 ■ 

27.96 oz. 



COST. 
10.3 oz. + 20% waste = 12.87 oz. <S> 

$.456 per lb = $ .3658 

17.66 oz. + 20% waste = 22.07 oz. 

@ $.368 per lb = .5076 

Cost of stock $ .8734 

Manufacturing, 70 picks = .4160 

Net mill cost $1.2894 



16 harness, straight draw. 



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WOOL AND WORSTED THREE-COLOR HAIR LINE 

The true hair line fabric is usually made from fine yarns and closely 
finished in order to bring out clearly the pattern effect, which would be 
hardly perceptible were the goods finished with any considerable amount of 
nap. The pattern is developed in a single thread effect the line resulting 
from the crossing of each warp end by a pick of filling of the same color, 
and is invariably woven on the broken crow twill. The imitation illustrated 
is woven on a rib weave with a warp of three colors, brown, slate and 
white, two ends of each in the repeat, and woven with a chain that raises 
all the threads of the warp at each pick, except those of the same 
color as the pick about to be thrown across. The result 
is a three-colored stripe, well-defined, and a well-balanced fabric. A 
similar effect might be produced in a fabric constructed with wool for both 
warp and filling, the only objection to such a construction being the fact that 

Definition of Pattern 
is difficult to obtain without clear finishing, because of the very decided 
tendency of the wool fibres of different colors to overlap and felt together 
in the fulling proc ess. In the recent past, a woolen fabric, clear finished, of 
similar construction, has been a very good seller with a number of fancy 
cassimere mills. The popularity of pencil stripes and other fine effects 
would lead one to suppose that a fabric similar to that described might be 
well received the coming heavy-weight season. The yarn for the warp 
may be made from an all-wool stock or from a mixture of wool and shoddy 
or noils. The use of shoddy in the white stripe would involve a careful se- 
lection of the stock, as absolute purity of color must be obtained or the 
desired effect cannot be produced. It would not add materially to the cost 
to use a noil or garnetted thread waste in the stock mixture for the white, 
making a slight increase in the amount of shoddy in the darker mixtures to 
overcome the greater cost of the white. The 

Wools Used in the Warp 
should be of medium grade, well sorted, all discolored locks thrown into 
the lots intended for coloring, and the clear white kept by itself for use in 
the white thread. With well -selected wools, scoured carefully, bleacfiing 
should not be required, but to overcome the slightly yellow tinge to be found, 
in most wools, it might be well to give the white a very small percentage 
of a thin blue dye, the effect being to overcome the yellow cast and make 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



181 



the stock a more brilliant white. This process is used by many of our 
leading mills, and is practiced in our laundries daily. See that the stock 
is thoroughly mixed in the picker room and given sufficient oil of good 
quality to thoroughly lubricate it during the carding and spinning processes. 
The necessity for oiling the stock is due in a large measure to the peculiar 
physical structure of the wool fibre. To the naked eye a single fibre of wool 
appears to be a smooth, cylindrical filament, the same size from root to 
tip. Viewed under a powerful microscope, it is seen to be a hollow .cylinder, 
tapering from one end to the other, and covered with 

Innumerable Fine Bracts, or Serrations. 
These fine scales give to the wool the greater part of its felting power, 
and are of material assistance in blending the mass of fibres into a com- 




Three-Color Hair Line. 

pact whole during the process of fulling. In order to obtain the best re- 
sults in converting the wool into cloth, it is essential that its peculiar char- 
acteristics are preserved to the fullest extent. Under the influence of mois- 
ture, the fibre becomes soft and pliable, the serrations are much less liable 
to be damaged in the process of manufacture, and less waste is made. The 
emulsion used in the picker room fills these imbrications so that the fibres 
slip past one another readily, and are not injured by the friction or by con- 
tact with the wire clothing of the cards. In addition to the preservation of 
the structure of the fibre, the oiling of the wool reduces the tendency of the 
wool to fly from the cards in the form of fine waste. 

In carding a stock mixture such as is used in the sample the clothing 
should be in good condition and the various parts set fairly close. On the 



182 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

first breaker the worker should be set to the cylinder with a 26 gauge, and 
a 28 or 30 should be used on the second breaker and finisher. Grinding 
should not be resorted to at too frequent intervals, and must be very care- 
fully done. Avoid setting the grinder on too hard, or there is great danger 
of forming a hook on the end of the wire which will prevent the doffer 
from taking the stock from the cylinder. Should this occur, it will be neces- 
sary to "face" the clothing, that is, run the cylinder in the opposite direc- 
tion, grinding 

Against the Points 

of the wire. This should never be undertaken unless absolutely necessary, 
as it has a decided tendency to loosen the wire in the foundation, a condition 
of affairs that is extremely undesirable and may require considerable labor 
to remedy. To overcome this defect, it may be necessary to resort to 
"flocking," which, even when done by an expert, will not put the clothing 
in as good condition as it was originally. Excessive grinding is also very 
apt to cause the teeth to shell out, particularly if the clothing has been in 
use for a considerable length of time. When this occurs to any great ex- 
tent, the only remedy, and one that is very expensive, is to replace the 
clothing. 

If the hooking of the clothing is but slight it may be remedied some- 
times by running a roll covered with old fancy wire against the points, set 
fairly well in. The care of carding machinery is extremely important, as 
on its perfect condition depends the ability of the carder to turn out rov- 
ing that will spin well and 

Give the Desired Results 
in the finished goods. The clothing is very expensive, and may be seriously 
injured in a variety of ways. There are many mills in operation to-day that 
have no bur picker in their equipment of preparatory machinery, trusting 
to the bur guards in the first breaker to throw out the burs contained in the 
wool. This is a very shortsighted policy, as the cost of installation and 
operation would be more than overbalanced by the saving of needless wear 
and damage to the card clothing. Examples to prove this contention are 
probably familiar to every carder, a recent experience in Pennsylvania 
bringing it to mind very forcibly. The carder was about to grind the set, 
and had removed the top work, leaving the cylinder plainly visible from 
all parts of the room. Even when standing by the condenser on the finisher 
of the set the appearance of the cylinder was much like that of a dusty 
road at the beginning of a shower, it would be impossible to place the tip 
of a finger on it without touching a spot where the wire had been knocked 
down by a bur or other hard substance. The clothing was ruined, so far as 
the carding of fine or medium stock was concerned. Extreme caution is re- 
quired in the grinding of the doffer rings also, as on their condition the 
quality of roving produced is largely dependent. Overgrinding is more apt 
to be the trouble than lack of it to keep the clothing sharp. 

Make the roving slightly over half draft, keeping tops and bottoms sep- 
arate. The fact that they weigh alike presupposes that they will run alike 
on the mule, but experience has taught most of us the wisdom of spinning 
separately, or on the two sides of a mule, having variable roving speeds for 
each side. A 

Frequent Source of Trouble 
in subsequent operations is the making of heavy or light side ends. These 
may come next to the waste ring on each doffer or on the opposite end. The 
trouble may be that the waste ring is taking too much stock, but more often 
it will be found that the cause of the trouble is at the back of the card. It 
may be that the Apperly is not set quite as wide as it should be, or that the 
traverse motion is speeded too fast, causing the roving to draw at each 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



183 



side. These suggestions may assist the carder in locating the trouble, or at 
least give him an idea as to where it may be found. 

Spinning practically perfect yarns from well-made roving is usually 
comparatively easy, and from our stock mixture should present no difficulty 
whatever. Let the mule start out at a fair rate of speed so as to begin 
drawing the yarn before too much twist has been inserted, otherwise there 
will be greater breakage of ends than should occur. Keep the faller well 
weighted, thus building a firm bobbin that will not slough off in spooling or 
weaving. Have all broken ends tied, no splicers being allowed either in 
warp or filling. 

Spoolers should be taught to tie a knot that will not slip, and must be 
cautioned to leave no long ends. The dressing, from spools made practically 
perfect, free from 

Holes and Double Ends, 

should not require much time, as the reels may readily be operated at a 
speed of from 8 to 11 turns per minute. In beaming, the us d of a compressor 
will be found to increase the amount of yarn that can be placed on a beam, 
and will aid in the making of a warp that will weave well, increasing the 
production per loom, as the yarn will retain its elasticity to a remarkable 
degree. Run the worsted filling with as little brush in the shuttle as is com- 
patible with pertect work. Burling and sewing are almost negligible items, 
as the work should come from the weave room practically perfect. The full- 
ing may be done in the grease, unless there is reason to suspect that the 
white will be stained. If such is the case, scour and extract, then run through 
the soaping machine, and full to 57 inches in width, with no endwise shrink- 
age. Wash out every trace of soap, extract and dry. When thoroughly dry, 
the pieces should be lightly sheared to remove any long hairs, have a run 
on the brush and be pressed. As they emerge from the press give them a 
light steaming and roll up. The finish will be much more permanent if they 
are allowed to remain overnight on the rolls. 



LAYOUT. 

1,944 ends; 13% reed, 2 per dent 
1%" for listing = 73%" over all. 

60 picks. 

Dressed: 

3 run brown 2 

3 run slate 2 

3 run white 



•Sections. 

Filling:: 

2/36 white 1 

2/36 slate 

2/36 brown 



72" + 



2 I 



324 
*6 



1,944 ends, 
take-up 



60 picks 2/36 



CALCULATIONS 
3 run 



36X560- 
Loom weight 



= 6.48 oz. + 10% 

= 7.2 oz. 

60X73% 

7.0 oz. 



-16h-2 



7.2 oz. -f 
$.0175 

7 oz. + 3% 
$.0475 



COST. 

20% waste = 8 
waste =' 7.22 



Cost of stock 

Cost of manufacturing. 



14.2 oz. 



.= $ .1400 

@ 
,= .3429 



Net mill cost 

6 harness, straight draw. 



$ .4829 
.3750 



* .8579 



STOCK MIXTURE. 

50% medium wool @ 40c = 20c. 

50% shoddy @ 16c = 8c. 



16) 28c. 



An ounce 

2/36 worsted @ 76c. per lb. 



= l%c 
ic an oz. 



ioni 
«■■ 
■■■ 

■ GDI 



184 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



NOVELTY CHECK WORSTED AND COTTON DRESS GOODS 

The fabric illustrated is one that should show a good profit for a mill 
producing its own worsted yarns, as it can be made on the double -loom 
system and the worsted filling woven directly from the spinning bobbin in 
the single. The warp is dressed four ends of v/hite 2-50s worsted and 
four ends of black l-20s cotton, the filling pattern, four picks white l-24s 
worsted and four picks black l-20s cotton. In appearance and handle the 
fabric very closely approximates one made entirely from worsted, being 
'/ery cleverly fabricated and intended to convey to the uninitiated the idea 
that it is a pure worsted cloth. It must not be understood from the fore- 
going statement that the manufacturer expects to merchandise the fabric 
/or other than what it is, half cotton, for the buyer in these days is far 
oo familiar with the construction of cloths to be deceived by such a tab- 
ic as this. The deception comes when the cloths are sold by the retailer, 
: lamentable lack of knowledge as to the component parts of his mer- 




Novelty Check Dress Goods. 



chandise being evidenced every day in our department stores. Unless we 
are to believe that, in addition to the exorbitant profits figured on his 
merchandise, the intention is to deceive the buyer, we are forced to the 
conclusion that the average merchant has very little knowledge of the 
goods he handles daily. That the latter more charitable view of the case 
is correct is certainly not the fault of the manufacturer, as no one would 
adopt the suicidal policy of attempting to sell their fabrics as other than 
they really are. The 

Amazing Ignorance 
of the ordinary salesman in our department stores concerning the fabrics 
handled is well-nigh beyond belief, and is absolutely without excuse in these 
days, when the actual facts as to the construction of fabrics are so readily 
available in language free from technicalities. That anyone remains in ig- 
norance as to the methods of determining the relative amounts of wool 
and cotton in a given fabric, presupposes a disinclination to avail himself 
of the means at hand of acquiring the information, and goes far toward 
explaining why they never advance to positions of responsibility. The cot- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 185 

ton used may be, and in all probability is, purchased on a section beam 
ready for the dresser in fast black, either a sulphur or a developed black. 
It must be absolutely lree from any tendency to crock or stain the white 
worsted during weaving or finishing. 

The worsted is made from a clear white half-blood territory of fair 
staple, preferably a French spun yarn. The advantages of using French, 
or dry spun yarns in fabrics of this character are obvious to anyone con- 
versant with the process of yarn manufacture. Yarns spun on the French 
system 

Are Usually Softer 

and possibly a trifle more plump than an equivalent grade and size made 
by the English or Bradford system, and are particularly adapted to the pro 
duction of goods of this character. Tue softness and lullness of the wor- 
sted aids materially in relieving the harsh touch that would ordinarily 
result from the use of so large a proportion of cotton in the fabric. The 
warp yarns should be carefully inspected before the warps are dressed, as 
it is obvious that imperfections may be removed much more readily while 
the yarn is free than when woven into the goods. The importance of thor- 
ough yarn inspection is sometimes overlooked, especially if the yarns are 
to be woven by the spinner. This is a great mistake, as it may be easily 
proven that the expense of inspection is more than overcome by the in 
creased production from dressers and looms, owing to the improved con- 
dition of the yarn. The great decrease of time and labor required for the 
burling is also a feature that should appeal to the manufacturer who is anx- 
ious to economize and bring his manufacturing costs to a minimum, while 
raising the standard of his product. Too often it is thought that these 
trifling details are not of sufficient importance for the manager to bother' 
with, but efficiency reduced to its lowest terms is elimination of unneces- 
sary work, and performing the work that is required with the greatest 
economy of time and labor. If we are to do this, there are no trifles in 
the conversion of raw materials into finished fabrics, each operation being 
of the utmost importance, and each operative should be taught to feel that 
the success of the mill is dependent, in part at least, on the proper perform- 
ance of his or her duty. 

Spooling should be carefully attended to, the tension on each thread 
as even as it is possible to secure, and the spool be free from holes. Only 
by having practically perfect spooling is it possible to obtain a high pro- 
duction in the dressing room of warps that will give the 

Best Possible Results, 
in the weave room. In beaming, see that the flanges are perfectly true and 
that the reel is in such position that the warp is delivered exactly be- 
tween the flanges. The looms should be carefully gone over before the 
warps are hung, the stop motion examined, oiled, and if necessary, ad- 
justed. New friction bands should be placed on the beam heads, and the 
take-up placed in perfect condition. Hang the harnesses uniformly, with a 
slight slope upward from the front, that the shade may open evenly. Tie in 
the warp, taking care to have the same tension on each section, and avoid 
making unnecessary waste. Drop the harness leveling blade and turn over 
the head motion. The bottom shade should clear the race plate nicely, but 
must not be high enough to cause the shuttle to fly out or split bobbins. 
Take a few picks, then level the harnesses and tie in all broken threads. 
After weaving the heading put in the filling, weave an inch or two and 
look over the harnesses. Every broken thread should be tied in, wrong 
draws corrected and wrong colors made right. Weave sufficient to see that 
the picks are correct, and the looms should be turned over to the weaver in 
operation. As soon as convenient after coming from the loom, the pieces 



186 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



should be inspected over a perch and measured, proper records made and 
the goods are then ready for the burlers. 

The burling room should have an equipment of tables with a perfectly 
smooth top, preferably of metal, so that the girls may easily find the knots 
as they pass their hands over the surface of the cloth. They should be in- 
structed to raise the knots on both sides of the cloth, remove all slugs and 
bits of foreign matter, the tangled ends of broken threads and filling which 
have been drawn in at the sides. Sewing is the next operation, requiring 
some skill on the part of the operative to correctly replace missing threads 
of warp and filling. The sewers must replace hard twist ends, wrong 
draws, wrong colors, mend floats and small holes, putting the cloth in as 
nearly perfect condition as possible b3fore scouring. 

The scouring operation is usually performed in a four, six or 
Eight-String Washer, 

the goods passing in rope form between heavy rollers, which effectually 
remove the grease and dirt. The soap used should be a pure, neutral pain 
oil, with no trace of free caustic alkali. The scouring soap for a fabric 
of the type described should not require more than three ounces of soap 
and two ounces of alkali to the gallon of water to cleanse them thoroughly. 
Run in the suds with warm water for 15 to 20 minutes, open the gates and 
rinse all the soap and dirt out. Extract and immediately take to the dry- 
er. Goods should not be allowed to lie around while damp, as the exposed 
parts are likely to dry out to a certain extent, and will not give even re- 
sults in the finishing. Avoid too high a temperature in drying, as the han- 
dle of the goods will be injured by excessive heat. Give a run on 
the brush and shear quite closely, brush, examine, and, if 
necessary, take to the fne sewers. This operation should 
have the attention of the most expert sewers to be had, as it is a matter 
requiring no mean degree of skill to sew on finished goods and leave no 
trace. Brush, spray and press. 



LAYOUT. 

3,840 ends; 15 reed, 4 per dent = 
1%" for listing = 65%" over all. 

72 picks. 

8 harness, straight draw. 

Dressed: 

White worsted 4 

Black cotton 4 



64" 



480 
♦8 



•Sections. 
Filling: 

White worsted 4 

Black cotton 4 



CALCULATIONS. 

1,920 ends 2/50 worsted = 2.2 oz. 

+ 10% = 2.43 oz. 

1,920 ends 1/20 cotton = 1.82 oz. 

+ 1094 „ = 2.00 oz. 



36 pks. 1/24 wrstd. = 

36 pks. 1/20 cofn. 
Loom weight 



36X65.5 

24X560-^16 
36X65.5 

20X840-H16 



COST. 

+ 5% 



waste 



2.43 oz. worsted 

2.55 oz. @ $1. . , 
2.78 oz. worsted 4- 3% waste 

2.86 oz. @ 84c 

4.24 oz. cotton -f- 3% waste 

4.42 oz. @ 28c 



Cost of stock 
Manufacturing . . 



Net mill cost 

BOD 



J White 

Eh □■■□' Bf ■ White 

y OBBDBBBO White 

5 BODBBPDD White 

O BBDCBOCB Black 

K BBB DBBO Black 

fe ' BEBDBBD Hi"* 

DOBtBDDB Black 



.1593 
.1501 
.0782 



.3876 
.3040 



$ .6916 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 187 

N3VELTY CLOAKING, IMITATION CHINCHILLA 

A greater interest in fabrics manufactured from novelty yarns has been 
manifested of late than has been in evidence for a number of years. The 
popularity of imitation furs, ratines and boucles has led to much experi- 
menting on the part of yarn manufacturers, with a resulting increase in the 
number of novelties offered the weaver. The effect obtained in the sample 
illustrated is a high-colored background covered with a mass of closely 
curled loops of contrasting colors, the result being an extremely attractive 
fabric without the clumsy, bulky appearance that characterizes many of 
the oiferings of rough-faced coatings. The production of novelties in any 
line is a source of much more profit than can be obtained in the manufac- 
ture of standard staple goods. In no line of manufacturing is this more true 
than in the textile field, more particularly in the department of ladies' wear. 
The price that may be obtained for a novelty that meets with popular ap- 
proval is not based on intrinsic value or cost of production, but is entirely 
a question of how much the public can be induced to pay, and is largely a 
question of clever advertising and securing the approval of a few acknowl- 
edged leaders of fashion. When successfully introduced, production should 
be hastened as rapidly as possible, to secure the cream of the market be- 
fore the horde of imitators are able to follow with a fabric at a lower price 
that approximates the appearance of the original, though usually of much 
less value. It would seem that a law to prevent copying fabrics and styles 
would be of much more benefit to the trade than much of the legislation 
that is proposed. 

Opportunities Offered. 

The opportunities offered the designer in the fabrication of cloakings 
of this type are not confined to weave combinations, but include the taste- 
ful blending of jolors in both warp and filling. The sample taken as a type 
has a woolen warp of solid red, in a medium shade, the filling being of red 
wool, identical in color and stock with the warp, and two shades of a nov- 
elty yarn, alternate picks of black and Bismarck brown, 6-18 spiral, the 
loops formed in fulling covering the face and almost entirely obscuring the 
warp, though the color shows through sufficiently to form a pleasing com- 
bination with the filling yarns. The warp and ground filling are made from 
a stock mixture of medium wool and shoddy of a light shade, or preferably 
a stock made from red cloth clippings. The warp yarn is spun four run 
right twist and the filling four and a half run left twist. The stock should 
be carefully mixed in the picker house and well carded. The roving should 
be clear and free from twits, made a trifle over half draft. In spinning, the 
most important feature is the production of a strong, elastic yarn, smooth- 
ness being of secondary importance, as the woolen yarns do not show to 
any extent on the face of the fabric. The stock used must be possessed of 
good felting qualities, as on this depends to a great extent the success of 
the finish desired. The worsted yarns used to give the loop effect on the 



188 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

face are made especially with this end in view. Instead oif twisting two 
threads of the 

Same Size and Quality 
together, as is the usual custom, the spiral yarn used for this fabric is 
made by twisting a single twenty- six, made from half-blood Wool, with a 
single eight, made from a lustrous crossbred, or mohair. The result is a 
thread that, instead of being smooth as the ordinary worsted thread, has 
the appearance of a corkscrew. The reason for .using yarns of such di- 
verse sizes and grades is that during the fulling operation the wool and fine 
worsted threads are very much shortened, while the heavier, coarse-grade 
worsted, with relatively little capacity for fulling, instead of being shorten- 
ed, forms little loops or curls on the face of the goods, covering the face 
completely with innumerable little curls, somewhat resembling the appear- 
ance of a chinchilla. The fabric is frequently termed imitation chinchilla on 
this account. 

The manufacture of the novelty filling yarns is not usually undertaken 
by the weaver, but is a specialty with certain worsted spinners and a few 
concerns that buy the various worsted yarns and have only an equipment 
of twisters, loopers and other machinery for the production of novelties for 
the trade. The advantages to be derived from manufacturing such yarns 
by the weaver are largely overcome by the fact that there are long periods 
when a considerable equipment of rather expensive machinery may be idle, 
the 

Fixed Charges Overbalancing 

the saving in expense of buying novelty yarns at possibly infrequent inter- 
vals. Spiral yarns are possibly the simplest form of novelties, and may be 
made on the ordinary type of twister, while for the manufacture of loop 
yarns, picot and knots, a special twister with two sets of delivery rolls and 
a variety of attachments is necessary. 

The warps are dressed in eight sections, using 8y 2 spools of 48 ends 
each, or 10y 2 spools of 40 ends each, making 420 ends per section, without 
the use of special spooler guides. The full draft repeats on 24 harnesses, 
but may be reduced to 16 without undue crowding of the threads. Burling 
and sewing require but little attention, as minor imperfections will not be 
seen in the finished goods. Fulling is the most important feature in the 
finishing of fabr;cs of this character, as on the results of this operation de- 
pend the success of the finisher. In many mills it is customary to run the 
goods into the fulling mills, throw in the cold soap and trust to luck to get 
even results. This method may work very well on goods that require 
heavy fulling for a long period, but would prove disastrous if tried on goods 
such as we are to finish. Better results are obtained if even distribution 
of the soap is secured by means of a soaping machine and the 

Goods Are Tacked Before Fulling. 

Just why tacking, or loosely sewing the edges of the pieces together 
before fulling, produces more even results is a question concerning which 
there are many opinions held by finishers. That such results are obtained 
is unquestionably true. One of the best reasons given is that the tacking 
forming the piece into an endless tube tends to confine the air within the 
tube, and as this is forced back by the action of the rolls, it prevents the 
running of the goods in the same folds during the fulling, thus preventing 
the formation of welts or mill wrinkles, a defect impossible to remove if 
once formed. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



189 



If the goods are fulled without tacking, they should be examined at in- 
tervals to see that satisfactory progress is being made, and if any tendency 
to welting is noticed the pieces should be stretched in width by hand be- 
fore the mills are again started. The soap used on these cloths must be one 
that can be absolutely relied on as to purity, fulling and detergent proper- 
ties, as the use of an inferior soap on a single set of pieces will cause a loss 
sufficient to pay for several barrels of the best soap procurable. Pull to 
57 inches in width, with no loss in length, removing immediately to the 
washer. Run for a few minutes in warm water, when, if a good soap has 
been used, the goods should lather up freely. Scour thoroughly and rinse 
well before taking from the washer. Extract and dry at a moderate heat. 
Shear off the long hairs and give a moderate pressing. 



LAYOUT. 
3 360 ends; 11 reed, 4 per dent = 75%" 4- 

1%" lor listing = 77" over all. 
76 picks. 
Dressed: 

4 run red 420 

•8 

•Sections. 3,360 

Filling: 

8/26 black 1 1 

8/26' brown 1 1 

3% red 1 I 1 

3 

STOCK MIXTURE FOR WARP AND WOOL, 
FILLING. 

50% wool @ 44c = $ .22 

50% shoddy @ 24c = .12 

$ .34 

$.34 -f- 16 oz. = 2%c. per ounce. 
8/26 novelty @ 88c. 

CHAIN DRAFT. 

1 worsted. 

1 wool. 

76 picks. 

□ □□□□aOCIGLJMMM 

aamam bbjgbbb ■■ 
ldd ,aaumm*»Mm _dj 

□JGDaaaaaaGGQQGD 
amaaammmammmammm 
aaanmmmanaa^iummm „ 10 

Dimiiiainitiii •■> 

□a aaajuaaajiMM 8 

aaaBMCiaHoaMZia 7 

QDG jDG ****** ,.:. 3 6 

■ I ■■4l4Jllldil«l 

□a a**m*mmaa i_iOq * 

■ DDDMiUJllJlHG 3 
LDD JBBBaaaGGDBBB 2 'J 



CALCULATIONS. 

3,360 ends 4 run = 8.4 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 9.33 oz. 

38X77 

38 picks 4% run = = 6.50 oz. 

350 

38X77 

38 pks. 8/26 wstd. = 16.78 oz. 

4%X560-=-2-i-16 

Loom weight 32.61 oz. 

COST. 
15. S8 oz. woolen + -20% waste = 

19.85 oz. @ 2%c = $ .4218 

16.78 oz. novelty -f 3% waste = 

17.27 oz. @ 5%c = .9498 

Cost of stock $1.3716 

Manufacturing = .4420 

Net mill cost $1.8136 

CHAIN DRAFT. 

Worsted 1 1 I 2 

Wool 1 1 



56 picks 

cddo«blJlJljlo ;i«bb 
ajuaaajaayaa t* jm 
uaoLuaaaaaao jjd j 

Q_OQ[3QQDaOaa J Jll 

ubo ..aaaoaaao jaaa 

aaaaaaaaacrujao* 

DDDDuacunBaB^aaD 

iLMBaaaa in m 

rjUQDBaanu jgdgbbb 
DuGauuaBBaaaaaau 

DUB ul B.aBBGBBB 

aaaaHaaoaDGaBBBa 

DDGQ ■BBBBBOaOJua 

a ._ ■•_■■■ ***:* 

DaaDDDaonBaa niu 
a irjrjBBBaDDnuarjaB 
DBGOaBjiaaaa^Baaa 

DGa_iGDGB*BBBBuGa 
UOJ 'MJIIj «■■■ 
DJCBBQ«BBJBBBUBB 
GJG. BBBBaaJGJ^G 

DJQ D DD^DII.Ill 

D a inaB ^DaaBGiiaa 

D JUDBBBBBDJJ_,DGB 

D DDjaDiJBBBBlB_,Q 
BDGGBBDaBaGaaBJB 

HJ.Dialj.aaQDJil 

dbj BaaJBBauaaaG 
a j_qb jGGuDaaaaaa 

C JU. «>■■■■ GGDJG 
UJGBBGBaB BB «GBB 

d_d .□jjj^iiiii.a 

G :GGB IBB J_GGGGBB 

DDja^aDBBBBaBG^D 



190 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



PIECE-DYED 



DRESS GOODS 



That style changes run in fairly recognized cycles is a statement often 
made, and one that may be readily proven by an examination of the style 
books of former years now packed away in some dusty corner of the mill 
attic. Each special type of fabric has its run of popularity and is then rel- 
egated to a place in the rear of the procession or is entirely neglected for a 
time, only to be revived, possibly under a new name, and exploited as the 
"dernier cri." As an example of the return to popular favor of a fabric 
which has led the market twice within the memory of many of our present- 
day manufacturers the boucle may be cited. Twenty years ago thousands 
of pieces were turned out by the Beoli Mill, then owned by James Phillips, 
Jr., many of the styles being copyrighted. Other manufacturers were quick 
to see the possibilities of large profits in the production of a fabric which 
apparently could not be turned out in sufficient quantities to supply the 
demand. 

Demand Quickly Changes. 

The fickleness of the cloaking trade was proverbial even at that time, 
and the demand was a thing of the past almost overnight, to be revived in 
all its former vigor twenty years later. A similar story might well be told 
of brocaded dress goods, which have been in their heyday ot prosperity of 




Piece-Dyed Brocaded Dress Goods. 

late. Jaequards, which have not been in use for years in many of our mills. 
have been overhauled and again placed in commission, while designers in 
mills with no jacquard equipment have racked their brains to produce sim- 
ilar effects on the ordinary harness lcom. The result has been an unlimit- 
ed array of figured cloths in a range of colorings that seems well-nigh end- 
less. Some of the most popular effects have been produced in solid colors, 
the decoration consisting of floats of a heavy filling in a variety of figures, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 191 

produced by lowering certain of the warp threads in a predetermined or- 
der. 

The fabric illustrated is the product of a domestic mill, and compares 
very favorably with similar fabrics from abroad, both in fabrication and 
finish, and is of greater intrinsic value than foreign cloths of the same 
price. The yarns from which the goods are made were spun from South 
American crossbreds on the Bradford system, and are such as are quoted 
in the columns of the American Wool and Cotton Reporter from week to 
week. The warp in the fabric analyzed is a two-ply thirty-two, but it is 
not essential that a two-ply yarn be used. The advantages to be derived 
from using twofold yarn are 

Greater Strength in Weaving, 
less danger of breakage from the loose fibres intertwining, and a smoother 
fabric. The comparative looseness of the filling figure prevents shearing 
very closely, as there would be imminent risk of cutting the filling were 
this attempted. In many of the styles shown the figures are developed in 
part, or entirely, by special warp threads, or by the introduction of threads 
of entirely different material. The fabric under discussion, however, de- 
pends entirely upon the weave and texture for its ornamentation. The tex- 
ture of the fabric is comparatively low, counting only 40 warp ends and 
36 picks per inch. The warp and fillings are interlaced with a plain or cot- 
ton weave, except at the points where the heavier two-ply filling is floated 
over the warp ends to form the figure. 

It will be readily understood that a much wider range of patterns may 
be produced with a jacquard head than are possible for the designer who 
has at most but thirty or thirty-six harnesses at his disposal. It is in the 
latter case that greater technical skill is demanded, and a surprisingly 
large variety of styles may be developed by the designer whose training 
has been thorough along these lines. Tbe larger part of the fabrics of this 
character are produced by mills who specialize on dress goods, and in .nost 
instances spin their own yarns, as they are thereby enabled to figure closer 
than the mill that depends on independent spinners for the yarns required. 
The wools are sorted carefully, the coarser and finer grades thrown into 
suitable receptacles to be later used in the manufacture of yarns for other 
fabrics, and the particular grade desired for the production of the fabric in 
process is sent to the scouring room. The ancient and honorable method 
of wool scouring, so familiar to the older generation of mill men, has in 
these days been almost entirely superseded by the 

Mechanical Wool Washer, 

.a machine which will p.. mit of two men thoroughly scouring 10,000 to 12,- 
003 pounds of wool daily. The clean wool is then dried and sent to the card 
room, where it is put through a worsted card, usually of three cylinders, 
from which it comes in the form of a continuous sliver and is rolled on ,a 
spindle by the balling head. After passing through the preparing gill boxes, 
the slubbing is put on the "punch "box" and rolled into balls of four ends 
each, suitable for the comb. 

The combing process removes all the short, fibres, seeds, shive and other 



192 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

foreign matter, leaving only the long, comparatively straight fibres to be 
drawn ort* in the form of "top." A peculiar feature of the Noble comb (the 
type generally used in the Bradford system) is that the fibres taken from 
the large circle and those from the small ones 

Point in Opposite Directions, 

and the* longer fibres for the most part lie on one side of the sliver. The 
gilling operations tend to correct the latter feature, and distribute the long 
and short fibres evenly throughout the finished top. The required size is ob • 
tained by a system of doubling and drawing explained in detail in a former 
article. The finished yarn for the warp is placed on jack spools, for conven- 
ience in handling, and the warps dressed without sizing. The production 
per loom should show a high average, as the warps are strong, and the 
texture such that the yarns are not unduly strained in weaving. Burling 
and sewing are performed in the customary manner, and the pieces sent to 
the washers. It is essential that fabrics intended for piece dyeing should be 

Thoroughly Free from Soap, 

or the coloring will be attended with considerable difficulty and uneven 
shacks will result. When clean, the pieces should be crabbed, an operation 
requiring great care, as improper treatment in this process will greatly in- 
fluence the success of the dyeing. In coloring, the usual procedure is to 
run eight, ten or twelve pieces into the dye-kettle, throw the ends over the 
reel, sewing the ends of each piece together, forming an endless band of 
cloth, so that during the dyeing the pieces are constantly changing posi- 
tion, each section of the cloth being part of the time in the dye-bath and 
part of the time exposed in its passage over the reel. When the desired 
color has been obtained, draw off the kettle, cool and rinse the pieces, ex- 
tract and dry at a moderate temperature. 

When dry, brush and shear, or singe to remove the long hairs, as the 
finished goods should be as clear as the nature of the pattern will permit. 
Brush and inspect, then if necessary take to the fine sewers, where im- 
perfections hitherto neglected may be repaired. The goods are how ready 
for the press, and should be run through with moderate pressure, the steam 
registering 60 to 70 pounds. A final inspection and the goods are ready to 
be rolled up for casing. 

LAYOUT. 18X65.5 

2,240 ends; 17% reed, 2 per dent = 64" + 18 picks 1/20 = _.„,_■ = 1-68 oz. 

1%" for listing = 65.5" over all. J0X5b0^-16 "TTiToz" 

36 picks. 4.44 oz . 4. 7%% waste = 4.80 oz'. 

Warp: 3.37 oz. 4- 5% waste = 3.55 oz. 

White 2/32 % blood. 1.68 oz. + 5% waste = 1.73 oz. 

Filling-: i-ckst 

White 2/20 >4 blood 1 I 1 CObl. 

White 1/20 % blood 1 I 1 4g oz @ 70o per j b = $ .210 

— - — 3.55 oz. @ 64c. per lb = .142 

CALCULATIONS. * 173 ° 2 ' ® 6 ° C - »* T lb = -° 65 

2,240 ends 2/32 = 4 oz. 4- 10% Cost of stock $ .417 

take-up = 4.44 oz. Manufacturing, 36 picks = .218 

18X65.5 

18 picks 2/20 = = 3.37 oz. Net mill cost $ .635 

Z0X660-f-2-i-16 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 193 

WORSTED DIAGONAL DRESS GOODS 

The remark is frequently heard, that woolen goods are made in the 
finishing room. While this is true to a certain extent of all types of 
woolens, it especially applies to the large variety of fabrics with a close, 
smooth finish, generally known as "face goods." The reverse is the case 
with most of the worsteds, both men's wear and dress goods, they must be 
"made in the loom" very largely, as they do not undergo such a radical 
change of appearance during the process of finishing. It must not be in- 
ferred that 

Worsted Finishing 

is an extremely simple process, or one that does not require the services 
of a skillful overseer, as lack of care and attention in this department 
often means making "seconds" out of pieces that with correct handling 
would have been perfect. The weaving of these goods must be well done 
in order to avoid an excessive amount of sewing and mending. There 
are two very great advantages in using worsted for the manufacture of 
dress fabrics. First, it is possible to obtain clearer designs with sharp 
outlines and clear cut patterns, and also to produce a fabric that will be 
serviceable at a much lighter weight than those made from woolen 
yarns. 

The finer qualities of diagonals are made of fine high-grade wools spun 
to high counts and used twofold for warp, while the filling is spun from 
the same grade of stock, but in coarser counts and is used single. The 
lower priced fabrics are made from coarser stock and usually single yarns 
for both warp and weft. Single yarns are not nearly as smooth as the 
two-ply and require very careful handling in the dressing and weaving 
departments, if good results are to be obtained. 

To Prevent Undue Chafing 

of the threads during the weaving, the warps have a thorough application 
of a fairly heavy and well penetrating size in the dresser. It is not well 
to use too few harnesses, as the consequent crowding of the heddles will 
cause the threads to break from excessive chafing, causing less produc- 
tion and greater expense in the sewing room. The reed must be fine 
enough to beat the pick home firmly without cutting the filling or giving 
the cloth a striped appearance, due to using a reed so coarse as to allow 
the warp threads to become too much separated with an empty space in 
front of each wire. After weaving, the goods should be carefully inspected 
and all damages marked with chalk so that the menders may be able to 
spend their whole time in repairing imperfections, instead of wasting valu- 
able hours in looking for places that need their attention. 

After Burling and Sewing 

the goods are scoured with a light neutral soap, carefully rinsed, extracted 
and sent to the crabbing machine. For goods of this character there is 
nothing more satisfactory than a continuous crabbing machine, which 
takes the goods at one end, gives them a thorough treatment and delivers 
them at the other on rolls. Better results are obtained if the goods are 
allowed to remain on the rolls over night, and should be turned end for 
end at least once to avoid having the water settle at one side of the piece. 
If the pieces are thoroughly cleaned and free from soap, the dyer should 
have no difficulty in bringing the pieces out even. The tub must not be 
crowded and it is important that the steam pipes be so arranged that the 
water is heated evenly all over the tub. After a thorough rinsing the goods 



194 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

are dried in the usual manner and are given a run on the sanding machine 
to raise the loose fibres 

Previous to Shearing. 
The shear must be in good condition, as it is necessary to clean the face 
of the goods from all nap and loose fibre. When this is done properly, 
every thread stands out clear and distinct so that the beauty of the texture 
and design is brought out to its fullest extent. Because of the clear finish 
which is required on goods of this type, it is impossible to so manipulate 
them in finishing as to cover up defects in the manufacture. Every thread 
must be in its place showing up clear and round, or the effect which the 
designer has tried to bring out is marred. The goods should again be in- 
spected, imperfections mended that have escaped hitherto, and after a run 
on the brush they are ready for pressing. 

FRONT. CALCULATIONS. 

DDIIDDIIDDUDDIIODIIDDIIDailhi.nv 3,840 ends 1/24 = 4.57 OZ. + 5% 

liaailDDIiaDIIDDIIDnilDDIII U i l -" t " 1 - take-up = 4 79 oz 

QDBnDBDDBBBBBDQBBBBBBDnBBBBB R4 v on *. o m. 

DiDUHiiidCiiiiii^iiiii^ai; i 90 picks = 5.10 oz. 

animiaDiiuiiDDiiiiiDDiaai 32X560 — 16 

■■■■■DUHHHuaauHuuaaDaDci 

BBBULjHBBBBBDDBBBBBUnBDUBUrjBB T . . . "TT7 

BGaBBBBBBDaBBBBBDUBDaBODBBBB Loom weight 9.89 OZ. 

DBBBBBBUaBBBBBuJQBDnHDLBBBBOn 

BBBBBaDBBBBBULMnUBUUBBBBBDnB Waste 49 OZ. 

BBBGUBBBBBDnBnCBULBBBBBDDBBB 

■aoiiiii ■ ■: ■■■■■ niii 777 

OBBBBBaaBDDBODBBBBBaGBBBBBB; 1 10.38 OZ. 

BBBBGDBLiaBDLJBBBBBQaflBBBBB^ ' ■ 

■ ■DUBnUBIJDBBBBB.'.JLiBBBBBBi JJBBB COST. 

Layout: 10 - 38 oz - @ 68c - P er lb = $ -441 

Warp, 3,840 ends 1/24; reed 15/2— 4 = 62%" Manufacturing, 90 picks. = .425 

+ \y z " for listing = 64" over all. ,..,, . " — — 

Filling, 90 picks 1/32. Ml " cost $.866 

Finished width 52". 
Finished weight 9 oz. 



WORSTED CHEVIOT AMINOS 

Cheviots for ladies' coatings are usually coarse, rough appearing fabrics 
with warp and filling of contrasting colors or with a more or less pro- 
nounced pattern. They derive their name from the resemblance to the fab- 
rics which were originally made from wool sheared from the sheep raised 
on the Cheviot Hills, which was rather coarse and curly. The desired effect 
can be obtained by a selection of yarns not too low in grade and proper 
treatment in process of manufacture. The ideal cheviot is neither sleazy 
nor tight, has a fairly thick, curly nap with sufficient felt to retain its posi- 
tion without becoming rough and shaggy, but not so heavy as to obscure the 
pattern too much. 

The Selections of Wool. 

A very satisfactory yarn for this class of fabrics is combed from Mis- 
souri quarter-bloods, which give bright, snappy colors and a very good 
handle in the finished cloth. To obtain the finish peculiar to this class 
of goods, it is necessary that they be woven sufficiently wide to allow for 
fulling in width. If woven narrow enough to come to the proper width in 
scouring, the nap will not be sufficient to finish up as desired. The best 
results are acquired by laying the warp from four to six inches wider in 
the reed than for clear finished fabrics. The burling and mending are 
done in the usual manner, and the pieces are then run into the fulling mill. 
None but the best materials should be used in fulling. Soap should be 
free from impurities of all kinds, especially should the presence of free 
caustic alkali be guarded against. It is very readily detected by a simple 
test. A drop of phenol phthalein placed on the soap will betray it at once 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 195 

by the pink color developed. The wool fibre can be dissolved entirely by a 
solution of harsh alkali and a weaker solution has a tendency 

To Injure the Fibre, 
rendering it brittle and giving the goods a harsh "unkindly" touch. A pure 
palm oil soap, absolutely neutral, is the best to use on this class of goods. 
After fulling to width, the pieces are run into the washer with lukewarm 
water and washed for twenty to thirty minutes, the dirty suds washed out 
and then given a good rinsing in cold water. If there is any doubt as to 
their being clean they should have another washing with one pail of soap 
to each piece, followed by a thorough rinsing that will remove every trace 
of soap. Five minutes in the extractor should be sufficient to prepare the 
goods for the dryer. Drying in the open air is very much to be preferred 
if practicable, as the goods will handle much better. If necessary to dry 
artificially, do not hurry the process, as excessive heat, particularly in com- 
bination with moisture, has a very injurious effect. The shearing of 
these goods consists merely of cropping off the longer fibres that the fin- 
ished goods may not have a shaggy appearance, but a nap of even length 
throughout. A light steaming after pressing is beneficial. 

DDDIII a COST 

.:■■■ DS 15.50 oz. + 5% waste = 16.27 oz. 

■■CDnStf @ 68c - P er lb = * - 691 

■DQdHB 5 Manufacturing cost = .286 

Layout: Net cost $ .976 

1,9 ing r i ed 70''Tver = an 8% " + 1% " ^ ****' Six HarneoB, straight draw. 

Warp, 1,920 ends 2/15 purple = 

7.31 oz. + 10% take-up = 8.04 oz. 

Filling, 28 picks 2/15 black = 
28 X 70 

= 7.46 oz. 

7% X 560 -T- 16 



Loom weight = 15.50 oz. 



WHIPCORDS 



Fabrics known as whipcords are steep twill diagonals in which the 
warp is floated over several picks of filling in such a manner as to throw 
it on the surface in a decided roll. The finished goods have the appear- 
ance of well twisted cords laid diagonally on a plain surface. To get good 
results in fabrics of this nature the warp should be dressed of two-ply 
yarns. The filling may be, and invariably is, used single in dress goods of 
this weave. These cloths are not difficult to produce, as the warp, being 
of two-ply yarns, is smooth and strong, the weave not hard on the thread, 
nor are they apt to give trouble in the finishing room. The 

Major Part of the Dress Goods 

in this fabric is made of quarter- blood yarns and has a rather harsh touch. 
The dressing may be done on a dry frame, that is, one that has no sizing 
attachments, as there will be no danger of chafing in. the loom, with threads 
broken from that cause. In the finishing room this class of goods will be 
found to require comparatively little mending and ordinary care should 
give excellent results. The burling should be carefully attended to, all the 
knots raised, slugs, etc., removed. After mending, the goods are scoured, 
dried and 

Taken to the Polisher. 

This machine has two rolls covered with sandpaper and two filled with 

bristles. By means of suitable guide rolls the cloth is given more or less 

contact with each roll twice while passing through. Ordinarily one run 

will loosen up the loose fibres sufficiently for the raising brush on the 



196 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



shear to lift them into such a position that they will be cleaned off nicely 
by the revolving blade. After shearing, a run on the steam brush will 
put the goods in good condition for the press. Run through the press 
with the face to the cylinder, rolling them as they come off, and allow them 
to cool off on the roll before inspecting. 

FRONT. CALCULATIONS. 

SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS^H"* 3 ' 8 t t° ke e » d D s 2 / 36s = 6 - 09 oz - + 5 % , 39 02 

DDIDailHIDDIDDIIHI taKe-up . . . . . . — t>.«SJ OZ 

DDaiHIIODIDOIiilMUD 60 X 65% 
□■aillUUIGUaillHULBJ 00 picks = 4.6S oz. 

BBDlJBUaBBBBBQaBanBBB ^ * oou • 1D 

D^BJDBBBBBiJuBDDBBBBB 

BDUBBBBBDUaDDBBBBBDa Looh weigh! = 11.07 OZ. 

DBBBBBDDBGuBBBBHUGBa c m w „ tP — t,r „. 

BBBBGaBGUBBBBBaGBGLB ° /o wasle — - 00 oz - 

BBDDBDDBBBBBaDBanBBB 

11.62 oz. 
COST. 

Layout' 6 -39 oz - + 5% waste = 6.7 oz. @ 

' '. ' , „,„„ ,. .. , 80c. per lb = $ .335 

3 840 ends 2/36S % blood. 4 68 oz * + 5% waste = 49 oz @. 

?° , P n 1CkS ^ 1/24S / 4 i? l0 ? d - c ,- , ,„.* 68c. per lb. 7. .207 

3,840 ends reed 15 — 4 = 64" + 1%" for 

listing = 65%" over all. « 542 

Finished width 52". Manufacturing, 60 picks = !300 

Finished weight 10 oz. * 

Net cost $.842 



WORSTED CHEVIOT MEN'S WEAR 



A particularly good example of worsted cheviot for men's wear has a 
somewhat different construction, than the ordinary type. Instead of using 
a yarn spun to low counts for the warp, two threads of a finer number 
are drawn on one shaft. The filling is woven one pick in a shade, the size 
used being the same as that for the warp. This arrangement, apparently, 
would produce a badly balanced fabric, but this is not the result in the 
fabric here described. The resultant cloth is particularly kindly in handle 
and has the flat indistinct twill especially sought for in this type of goods. 
This type of construction 

Prevents the Harshness 
that would result from the use of lower count threads and gives a cloth 
that plump to the touch without being bulky and a fabric that is a pleasure 
to tailor, keeping its shape to a remarkable degree. The yarns are not 
twisted quite as hard as for clear finished goods, having two turns to the 
inch less than regular twist for this size. 

16 Harness Straight Draw. CALCULATIONS. 

rj BBDnDDBBBBDODDBB 4,480 ends 2/24s = 10.66 oz. + 

£ BBBBDQODBBBBnDDD 10% take-UD = 11 72 OZ 

^ DOBBBBaDDDBBBBDn , S /0 V ' ' 1J - '" OA ' 

O nDDDBBBBDnaDBBBB ds X /U.b 

rrj BBOnnDBBBBDnnDBB = D.61 OZ. 

r BBBBDDDDBBBBZCan 24 X 560 -=-16-5-2 

» nDBBBBDDDDBBBBDn ^ 

DDQDBBBBDDnnBBBB T . , . I „ „ „ 

Loom weight 18.33 oz. 

Layout: COST. 
Warp, 4.4S0 ends 2/24 mixture. 

Reed, 16% X4 = 69" + J%" lor listing 18.33 oz. + 7% waste = 19.6 oz. 

= 70%" over all. @ 82c. per lb = $1,004 

Filling, 38 picks 2/24 mixture. Manufacturing cost = .3496 

$1.3536 
5% loss in length = .0677 

Cost to mill = $1.4213 

Finished weight 17-17% oz. 



Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 197 



NOVELTY CHEVIOT 






Among the many cheviots offered by the manufacturers this season we 
have selected for analysis two which present some novel features in their 
construction. The special feature to which attention is called in the first 
example is the ingenious use of a double and twist thread in combination 
with a mock twist and a knot yarn to give character and life to a style 
which would be flat and lifeless without these aids. The stock used in both 
these is a combination of low-grade wool and shoddy, with a single worsted 
to produce the knot effect. Every thread necessary to produce these goods 
can be made in the ordinary fancy cassimere mill, aside from the worsted 
for the knot. Contrary to the usual custom of using a cotton or worsted 
thread for the core yarn of the novelty thread, the manufacturer has twisted 
the knotting thread on a woolen yarn of his own making, thus obviating the 
tiresome, and at times expensive, delays incident to the purchase of such 
threads. The machinery needed for the making of the knot yarn is not 
intricate, nor difficult to operate. It can be readily attached to nearly all 
of the modern types of twisters for woolen and worsted mills. It 

Differs from the Twisters in General Use 

for making ordinary ply yarns in having a set of rolls 
for each thread, which may be operated at various speeds as 
the requirements of the case may demand. In addition, there is a rod, held 
in suitable bearings, attached to the underside of the top frame, which is 
actuated by connectors to a push rod, which in turn receives its motion from 
a cam driven by a belt from a pulley on an extension of one of the roller 
shafts. Projecting from the rod are pins equal in number to the spindles 
of the twister, and when at rest are at a slight angle above the horizontal 
beside the thread in its course from the guide wire to the traveler. The rev- 
olution of the cam gives a reciprocating vertical motion to the pins, 
which, in their downward travel, is very nearly equal in speed to that of the 
core yarn. The thread forming the knot is delivered at a speed greater 
than that of the core yarn passing on the opposite side of the pin. In opera- 
tion, the resulting effect is to twist the knot yarn around the core, form- 
ing a lump or knot during the downward travel of the pin, while the return 
of the pin at a much greater speed gives but few turns of the knot around 
the core. By a change of the cams the knots can be placed at varying in- 
tervals, and the size of the knot governed to a certain extent by the speed 
of the delivery rolls carrying the knot thread. It may be necessary to use 
various sizes of yarns to produce the correct size of knot for fabrics of dif- 
ferent weights and textures. This is a matter that will largely depend on 
experience and the effect which the designer intends to produce. The two- 
ply thread is made on an ordinary twister, or can be made on a mule if 
found desirable. The 

Mock Twist 
requires the use of a balling head on the second break- 
er and a creel for the back of the finisher card. The col- 
ors it is desired to blend in the mock twist are put through the first and 
second breakers as separate lots and made into balls. On the finisher, the 
balls are put into the creel in such a manner that ends of alternate colors 
are drawn through the comb. In operation, it will require some care to have 
the comb register exactly with the rings of the doffer, so as to deliver as 
nearly as possible equal amounts of the two colors to each ring. The ob- 
ject to be obtained is a web on the ring that shall be black on one side and 
a complementary color on the other, so that the roving when spun will 
form a thread having a very close approach in appearance to a double and 



198 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

twist of contrasting colors. The successful production of these mock twists 
will test the skill of the carder to quite an extent, but the results which it 
is possible to secure are well worth striving for. It is only by the use of 
processes which are not possibilities for the poor workman that a superior 
man is able to demonstrate his ability. In the time of extremely acute com- 
petition, there is still a practically unlimited field for the mill with new 
ideas and novel effects, which has an organization competent to put them 
on the market, with a certainty of being able to reproduce exactly in the 
merchandise delivered the identical duplicate of the selling samples. In or- 
der to accomplish this, it will be 

Necessary to Keep Exact Records 
of details in every department. There is too great a tendency for overseers 
to trust to memory as to just the treatment given the various fabrics at 
certain stages; departures from the usual routine are at times forgotten, 
with the result that the finished fabric differs somewhat from the reference 
sample. The weave employed is the plain or cotton one, and the warp is 
drawn straight on four harnesses. The yarns are coarse and should pro- 
duce rapidly, the size of the threads and the weave used combining to make 
a firm fabric in spite of the low texture. 

Layout: _ mama 

1,064 ends; reed 8 — 2 = 66y 2 " + 1%" for Knot gggg 

listing = 68" over all. DBDB 
20 picks. 

Finished width 54". § 

Finished weight 17% oz. M 

Dressed: 

1 black and grey mock twist. 

1 black and purple knot. 

2 ends. 

Woven: 

1 dark blue 3% run double and twist. 

1 black and purple knot. 

2 picks. 

CALCULATIONS 
532 ends iy 2 run = 3.55 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 3.90 oz. 

532 ends 1 V 2 and 2/36 knot = 5.19 

oz. + 10% take-up = 5.71 oz. 

10 picks 3 run, double and twist.. = 4.53 oz. 
10 picks iy 2 and 2/36 knot = 6.69 oz. 



COST. 
60% wool @ 40c. per lb. = 12.75 


$ 


.319 


40% shoddy @ 16c. per lb. = 7.09 


.071 


3.8 oz. worsted + .03% shrinkage 
— 3.92 oz. @ 5%c — 


.228 








S 


.618 
.220 


Extra for twist 


.100 




$ 


.938 



Loom weight 20.83 oz. 

A very neat style can be made on the same warp by a change in the fillings 
used. The knot in the filling should be of orange worsted and the two-ply 
wool black instead of dark blue. 

Another novelty which should prove popular is made without the knot 
yarn, using a plain wool and worsted twist about three turns to the inch for 
the effect thread. The arrangement of the warp threads is somewhat un- 
usual, the dressing being as follows: One double and twist wool mixture, 
one single wool, one black wool and red worsted twist, the latter two 
threads working together. 



g o 5 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 199 

The filling on this style is entirely of double and twist wool. The mix- 
tures in the sample are 5 per cent white, 95 per cent black, both warp and 
filling, the effect produced being a plain grey surface picked out with fine spots 
of red. From the description it might be thought that the effect would be 
raw and glaring, but the reverse is the case. The style shows a very pleas- 
ing appearance, and in the tailored garment is extremely neat. The tight- 
ness of the weave in these cloths makes it necessary to reed these some- 
what narrower in the loom than ordinary cheviots or cassimeres, as they 
do not require long fulling to obtain the desired effect. If the yarns are 
well carded and spun, there should be a large production from the loom 
with a correspondingly low overhead charge for manufacturing. 



MGGERHEADS 

The fabrics known as "Niggerheads" this season are very different from 
the cloths familiarly known by that name some twenty years ago. We 
have selected for the purpose of analysis and description one of the nov- 
elties which is being marketed very freely the present season. In common 
with many of the various new styles shown this fall, it is especially adapted 
for use in ladies' coats, although in a slightly amended construction in 
heavier weights would prove a very suitable cloth for overcoatings. There 
are unusual opportunities afforded for the skillful manufacturer to copy 
cloths of this sort in cheaper fabrics, and a careful manipulation of the 
stock will give very satisfactory results at a very low cost. To the ordinary 
buyer there would appear to be practically no difference in garments made 
from either fabric. By close watch of the markets and good judgment as 
to style value, many of the smaller mills are able to operate continuously 
on these novelty cloths, and incidentally earn very handsome profits. Given 
the 

Style and Colorings, 
the intrinsic value of the goods is a minor consider- 
ation, as the demand is for "something new" each season. To obtain the 
best results in this cloth, there should be an intelligent selection of the 
wools used for the fillings, the warp yarns being of relatively minor impor- 
tance, as the cloth is essentially a "filling face" fabric. The effect which is 
to be produced requires a lustrous, long- staple wool, spun to low counts, 
which will form loops on the face of the goods. These yarns are usually 
made from wools such as the Lincoln lusters, New Zealand crossbreds or 
some of the bright, lustrous South Americans. The dressing and weaving 
of these cloths are attended with no unusual difficulties, and the dry finishing 
before fulling is unusually easy. A thread out is of no great consequence 
although carelessness in this respect should not be allowed, as the weavers 
are very prone to become lax and indifferent when fabrics requiring care 
are in the looms. Before fulling the goods should be "tacked," that is the 
edges sewn together with the face inside, as experience has shown that 
more even fulling can be obtained in this way. It will be necessary to use 
great 

Care in Soaping 
the pieces, so that they may have an even application of soap on all parts. 
A soaping machine will give much better results than the old-fashioned sys- 
tem of throwing the soap into the bottom of the mill to be wiped up by 
the cloth, or of filling the soap boxes at the back and allowing the soap to 
work in by degrees. Probably the greatest difficulty encountered by finish- 
ers in the production of goods of this type is the tendency to form mill 
wrinkles or to full unevenly. The pieces should be examined occasionally 
during fulling, and if any tendency in this direction is noted, it can usually 



200 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

be overcome by taking the goods out and shaking them thoroughly or 
stretching them well in the width. Do not full to the finished width, as the 
washing and subsequent finishing operations all have a tendency to make 
the goods narrower. For the particular cloth under discussion, it would be 
well to allow at least two inches for future shrinkage. During the washing 
the goods will usually be found to full up to nearly the desired finished 
width, and should be tentered on the dryer to measure an inch and a half 
over the width required. One run on the shear to crop off the long, loose 
fibres is all that will be found necessary. These goods may be pressed face 
to the bed at a moderate pressure, to add to the luster, which is one of the 
chief features of goods of this character. 



Layout: IS harness, straight draw. 

2 ' 5 lL°tin^ dS i r 7Tv" 12 o7er Til 70 " + 1% " ^ • ■□■□■□■□■DDnDDGDDn 

listing — 71% over an. • □□caGnnQHDBDBQBaBn 

32 picks. E □■□■□■□■adQUDDDaCM 

5 aOnQDQQQDBnBQBCMnB 

n A T r>TTT A TTflMO ° ■□■□■DBDBOODaODDOQ 

CALCULATIONS. tf ■□□DDnnCQOBDBCWDBn 

2,520 ends 2/24s = 5.5 OZ. + 10% v □■□■□■□■OBOaQDQQDa 

take-up = 6. 05 OZ. □■DnonQQDQnBDBCMDB 

32 X 71.5 

32 picks l/6s = 10.90 oz. COST. 

6 X 560 h- 16 6 05 oz + 5% waste _ 6.35 oz . @ 
Loom weight 16.95 oz. 90c pe ^ lb /° ^ $ 3570 

_ . - - . ,_* 1C 10.9 oz. + 5% waste = 11.15 oz. 

Finished weight 15 oz. @ 80c. per lb 5575 

Finished width 54". 

$ .9125 
Manufacturing 3136 



Mill cost $1.2261 

There are many methods which may be employed to produce a fabric 
which in appearance would approximate the foregoing example. The yarns 
used in the illustration are of better grade than would be required for a 
low-priced fabric. We have used for fillings a first-class Lincoln luster 
stock, while for a cheaper cloth it is customary to employ yarns spun from 
the cheaper grades, even the common and braid finding an outlet in fabrics 
similar to this, but lacking the handle and luster. For the warp, a cotton • 
thread may be used, which can be either purchased in the open market or 
made in the mill, a "wool spun" cotton, as it is usually termed. Fabrics 
constructed in this manner are not as satisfactory as are those made with 
a warp the chief constituent of which is wool. This need not be new wool 
entirely, but a combination of wool and shoddy or cotton. As previously 
stated, it is not intrinsic value alone which determines the selling price of 
novelties but the combination of color, design and originality of the style, 
created in answer to the ever-present desire for "something new and dif- 
ferent." 



FANCY WORSTED SUITINGS FOR MEN'S WEAR 

The manufacture of fancy worsteds is a branch of the woolen business 
that is of comparatively recent growth. There are many men engaged in ac- 
tive business life to-day who can easily recall the time when there were 
few, if any, mills in this country producing goods of this description. The 
increase in the production of goods from combed yarns has been extremely 
rapid within the past twenty-five years, and at the present time a very large 
proportion of the light-weight fabrics sold are worsteds. There are several 
very good reasons for the greater popularity of worsted goods, one of the 
strongest being the fact that goods, both for summer wear and cold weather, 
have become lighter in weight. Scarcely twenty years ago, the regular 
weight, for winter goods was twenty ounces and the spring fabrics weighed 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 201 

sixteen to seventeen ounces per yard. The present spring season finds us 
with nine to ten ounce worsteds with wool goods ten to eleven. The accept- 
ed weight for fall goods to-day is sixteen ounces, with many mills showing 
fabrics for fall that weigh but little over fourteen ounces. 

It is largely owing to the fact that in extremely light goods, such as the 
trade demands at present, worsteds offer a more sightly and better han- 
dling cloth than carded woolens, that worsted manufacturers are in much 
better position than their competitors who make carded goods entirely. 

Another Feature 

that appeals very strongly to many clothing buyers is the clean-cut, snappy 
styles that are brought out every season by many of our worsted mills. The 
making of fancy men's wear from combed yarns is a business requiring no 
little skill and experience. To attain success in this branch of the business 
requires an equipment that is modern and skilled help in all departments of 
the mill. We do not intend to go into the details of yarn making, as that is 
a business of itself, but simply to follow the process from yarn to cloth, as 
is the custom in most of the mills engaged in cloth making. The size most 
extensively used for light-weight goods is 2-40s in a fairly good quality. For 
the clothing trade, the half-blood is the grade in probably the greatest de- 
mand. Yarns are bought in skeins, and are usually dyed in machines, an 
ordinary type in common use holding two hundred and fifty pounds. Dur- 
ing the dyeing operation the skeins are held in position by two sticks, which 
keep the yarn from tangling and move it through the dye liquor. After dye- 
ing, the yarn should be well rinsed and extracted before going to the dryer. 
Better results are obtained if the yarn is dried by the 

Cold Air Process. 

This is accomplished by placing the yarn on wooden bars, which keep 
the skeins stretched during the operation. The bars are placed in sockets 
of a pair of "spiders" mounted on a shaft, the quantity of yarn so disposed 
as to balance the machine and the whole rotated rapidly by means of a 
pulley and belt from the line shaft. Yarns dried in this manner will wind 
with less waste and give a better handle to the finished goods than the same 
grade dried by means of artificial heat. When thoroughly dry the skeins 
are ready for winding. There are several types of machines built for this 
purpose, differing but slightly, and all accomplishing the desired result in a 
somewhat similar manner. The skeins are well stretched to separate the 
threads and mounted on a "swift" or "racers," as the case may be, the 
operator finds the free end and places it in position to go on a six-inch 
spool, which is rotated by a drum or other suitable mechanism. From the 
six-inch spools the yarn is put on dresser spools for the warp, or in some 
instances, is wound directly to bobbins for filling. The dressing is, in the 
majority of cases, done on a dry frame, the exception being very fine 
or tender yarn. The operation requires a skilled hand and unremitting 
vigilance, as irremediable damage may result from lack of care in the dress- 
ing department. The weaving of fancy worsteds also 

Requires a High Class of Help, 

as the work is more difficult and complex than that of a mill making 
staples or fancy cassimeres. This is due in a large measure to the fine 
counts of yarn used, and the greater variety of colors, as well as the in- 
tricate crossdraws that are necessary on certain of the styles developed. 
After weaving, the pieces are measured and inspected carefully over a 
perch, every imperfection marked for mending, the length, price number, 
weaver's name and other necessary data entered on the records. Burling 
is the next operation, usually performed by two girls seated at a sloping 



202 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

table with a smooth top, which enables them to find the knots more easily. 
Every knot must be raised on both sides of the goods, and slugs and bits of 
foreign matter of various kinds removed at this time. Threads out, broken 
picks, holes and damages of a like nature are repaired by the sewers. Some 
of these become so exceedingly skillful with the needle that should a piece 
be cut out from the cloth they are able to insert another to replace it, per- 
forming the operation so neatly that it is impossible to discover the location 
of the repair. The goods are now ready for the washer, a machine con- 
sisting of a box-like bottom part to hold the scouring liquor, with suitable 
gates at each end so that the dirty liquor may be drawn off. In the upper 
part are two heavy wooden rolls, between which the cloth passes under 
heavy pressure, the soapy water and dirt being squeezed out and falling 
into a trough under the bottom roll, which carries it to an outlet on the 
side connecting with the sewer. The soap used for scouring fancy worsteds 
should be free from impurities of all kinds, and should not contain an ex- 
cess of moisture. The testing of soap is so exceedingly simple that there 
is no excuse for a manufacturer accepting an inferior article. The most 

Common Adulterants, 

probably, are China clay and sodium silicate, or possibly resin. The test 
for moisture requires no apparatus aside from the grain scales usually to 
be found in the office or designing department. A small quantity of soap 
should be shaved into thin slices, carefully weighed, thoroughly dried and 
again weighed, the variation in weight showing the amount of moisture 
present. A mistaken idea is very prevalent, even among mill men who 
should be better informed, that hard soap contains less moisture than 
soft or crown soaps, but in many cases the reverse is true. The difference 
is in the composition, the hard soaps having soda as a base, while the 
soft soaps are formed with potash in combination with fatty acids. The 
test for earthy and heavy adulterants is also very simple. A small quantity 
of soap is dissolved in water and a little sulphuric acid added to the solu- 
tion. The structure of the soap is broken up, the heavy adulterants fall to 
the bottom of the glass, the grease and resin floating on the surface. There 
is also danger of the presence of 

Free Caustic Alkali 

unless precautions have been taken in the manufacture of the soap. This 
should be especially guarded against, as it has an extremely deleterious 
effect upon the wool fibre, injuring its physical structure and detracting 
materially from the handle of the fabric. The goods should be run from 
twenty to thirty minutes in lukewarm water with sufficient soap to raise 
the dirt and oil freely, the quantity of soap to be used varying with the 
length and weight of the pieces. The gates should be opened and the dirty 
liquor thoroughly washed out, allowing the pieces to run with cold water 
flowing into the washer until every trace of soap is removed. After ex- 
tracting, the goods are dried in the ordinary manner, usually on a "chain 
dryer," which holds them to the desired width during the process of dry- 
ing. Before shearing, they should be "back burled," to make sure that all 
knots have been properly raised, then given a few runs on the polisher, 
which raises the nap and loose ends in good condition for shearing. In 
order to obtain the clear finish that is one of the prime requisites of a 
fancy worsted it is very essential that the shear should be in 

Perfect Condition. 

To bring out the beauty of design and rich coloring to its fullest ef- 
fect, the shear must remove every vestige of nap or loose fibre, leaving the 
thread full and round, with the pattern clear and distinct. From the shear 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



203 






the goods are taken to the "fine sewers," who repair any damages not dis- 
covered and rectified previously. This is a task requiring the utmost skill 
and patience, particularly on the finer grades of goods. Before pressing, 
the pieces are steam brushed and given a run on the dewing machine, the 
latter operation making them hold the finish much better. More satisfac- 
tory results will be obtained if the goods are rolled as they come from the 
press, and allowed to become cold in the roll before the final inspection. 
The popular fabrics to-day, for both spring and fall wear, are single or 
through and through cloths instead of the double ones that were in vogue 
only a few years ago. With this construction there is no opportunity for 
padding with inferior stock to obtain the extra weight in fall goods. We 
give below full particulars for cloths constructed on both single and 
double cloth systems. 



Layout for 16-oz. double cloth: 

Warp, 7,200 ends; reed 13 % — 8 = 66.6" 
+ 1%" for listing = 68" over all. 
Filling: 

64 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
7,200 ends 2/40s = 10.28 oz. + 

7% take-up = 10.98 oz. 

64 X 68 
64 picks ....= 6.21 oz. 



Layout for 16-oz. single cloth: 

3,360 ends; reed 12 y 2 — 4 = 67.2" + 1%" 

for listing = 68.7" over all. 
54 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
3,360 ends 2/24s = 8 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 8.80 oz. 

54 X 68.7 
54 picks = 8.80 oz. 



24 X 560 -h 2 



16 



40 X 560 -4- 2 -T- 16 



Loom weight 17.19 oz. 

COST. 
17.19 oz. + 7% waste = 18.38 oz. 

@ 90c. per lb = $1,034 

Manufacturing = .435 



Loom weight 
Plus 5% waste 



17.60 oz. 
.88 oz. 



Yarn required 18.48 oz. 



18.48 oz. @ 75c. per lb. 
Manufacturing 



Net cost 




$1,469 


Net 


cost . 




Sixteen 


harness straight draw. 




Eight 


harness. 


straight draw. 






"WEAVE. 










WEAVE. 




Eh" 

O 


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□□QDBBBCDnQQBDBa 
BnnDDDBDBDQDDaBB 

BCMannnoBBBonooa 

nUBBBQDDDDBDBDnO 
DDDnBDBDDDDDBBBa 
BDDDDDBBBDDDDGBD 










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Eh OBBODBBa 

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,= $ .865 
.= .410 



$1,275 



VELOURS 



There is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the precise cloth 
designated by the term velour. Some of our manufacturers would class as 
velours any doth having a soft, velvety nap, while others make finer dis- 
tinctions, classing one as a "face-finished cassimere," a second as a "sax- 
ony," with velour slightly different from either of these. The claim is 
made that the term properly belongs to a fabric which has had the nap 
raised by gigging, and is not rightfully applied to cloths which owe their 
nap entirely to the fulling process. To obtain satisfactory results in the 
manufacture of fabrics of this character the selection of the wools to be 
used is a very important detail, as the finish desired is affected very ma- 
terially by the stock used in the manufacture of the yarns. The wool 
should be fine, with a good capacity for felting, not too long in staple and 



204 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

of good strength, shorn wools being much better, than pulled wools for sev- 
eral reasons. The wool shorn from the living animal is stronger and pos- 
sesses more life and elasticity than that pulled from pelts of animals that 
have been dead for some time, and has not been subjected to the action of 
harsh chemicals used in the process of pulling. 

The scouring of the wool should be carefully done, and no harsh al- 
kalies used as detergents. Untold harm may be done by improper scouring 
or the use of impure materials in the process. A pure potash soap and 
soft water are the prime necessities in wool scouring, and care must be 
taken to insure the use of a scouring liquor that is not too hot; in no 
case should the scouring bath be warmer than 125 to 130 degrees Fahren- 
heit. Excessive heat and impure materials have been the means of caus- 
ing difficulties in subsequent operations that are well-nigh insuperable. 
With well-selected stock, thoroughly cleansed from impurities, the carding 
and spinning operations should encounter no difficulties, and yarns spun 
from such stock will be sound, even and strong, giving 

Excellent Results in the Weave Room 

in the way of production, with a minimum amount of broken 
ends or picks. The goods must be well burled, all knots raised and 
clipped off, leaving the ends long enough so that in the fulling they will 
not shrink back and leave a hole. After sewing, the goods are ready for 
the fulling mill, and must be evenly soaped. This is a matter of seemingly 
minor importance, but much depends upon the even distribution of the 
soap over every part of the piece. It will be necessary to full the goods 
endwise as well as in width to get the best results. On fine goods five 
per cent should be sufficient to give a satisfactory cover. 

In scouring it will usually be found that enough soap remains from the 
fulling to hold the dirt and grease in suspension and allow of its being 
floated out by means of an application of warm water. If the pieces do not 
lather up freely in the washer, draw off the dirty liquor, rinse well, 
close the gates and add fresh soap. Half an hour in the soap, half an hour 
with warm water to wash it out and a final rinsing with cold water until 
every trace of soap is removed should result in clean goods and bright 
colors. Before drying, the goods are napped either on the teasel gig or 
wire napper until the nap is sufficient for the finish desired, tben put on 
the wet brush to straighten and lay the nap before drying. After the goods 
are dried they are brushed, steamed, examined for knots, etc., sheared, 
brushed, sprayed and pressed. The finished piece has a fine, smooth face, 
with a handle very close to that of a fine piece of suede leather. Many 
of the so-called velours are not gigged at all, the whole nap be- 
ing formed in the fulling mill, but these are readily detected, as the nap 
is not full enough to make a good cover for the face and the goods ap- 
pear more or less thready. 

Layout: COST. 

3,840 ends; reed 12 — 4 = 80" + iy 2 " for 15.86 oz. + 15% waste = 18.7 oz. 

listing = 81%" over all. + 5% shrinkage in finishing = 

50 picks. 19.6 oz. @ 52c. per lb = $ .637 

Finished width 56". Manufacturing, 50 picks + 5% 

Finished weight 13y 2 -14 oz. shrinkage ir; finishing = .420 

CALCULATIONS. Mill cost $1,057 

3,840 ends 5 run = 7.68 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 8.45 oz. Eight harness, straight draw. 

50x82.5 . unnnno 

50 picks 5 y 2 run = 7.41 oz. £ DdSSdSSB 

550 A ■DaCHOHD 
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Loom weight 15.86 oz. g RSSSaBS" 

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WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 205 



RATINES 



Among the many novelties which have appeared in cotton goods re- 
cently there probably is none which has been more popular than the so- 
called ratine fabrics. In spite of the fact that a very large percentage of 
dress goods novelties are short lived in popular demand, usually lasting 
but one season, this fabric, because of its adaptability to a variety of uses, 
bids fair to be as popular in worsted for fall and winter wear as its pro- 
totype has been in cotton for use in the summer season. The fabric is of 
low texture, both in ends and picks, yet has not the usual objection to such 
construction, the peculiar characteristics of the yarn employed in its man- 
ufacture preventing the sleazy appearance which frequently results from 
a loose construction. The success which has attended the marketing of 
well-made ratines is easily attested by the 

Numerous Imitations 

which have been offered as substitutes. The true ratine is produced by 
means of using a novelty twist in the warp, while the imitations are usu- 
ally made of carded woolen threads which are purposely carded and spun 
in such a manner as to produce a rough, uneven yarn which will approxi- 
mate as nearly as may be the appearance of the novelty twist. By the use 
of a low-grade nibby silk noil, mixed with a medium or fine medium wool, 
and spun to 2% to 3 run a very creditable imitation of the fabric can be 
produced. In preparing a lot of stock it must be borne in mind that the 
silk must not be oiled before picking. In laying out the lot, place a layer 
of wool first, which should be given a sprinkling of the lubricating emul- 
sion, then a layer of silk noil, followed by another layer of wool, which 
will have the emulsion as before. The silk will absorb all the oil neces- 
sary from the wool below and aboye it. In feeding the batch to the picker, 
do not take the stock in a haphazard manner, but start at one side, taking 
the stock from top to bottom of the pile, that the mixing may be done as 
thoroughly as possible. Stock of this nature should have at least three runs 
through the picker, which will result in a homogeneous mixture. 

The Cards 

should be set quite open in order to obtain the best ' results in a yarn of 
this description. Instead of making every effort to have the resulting 
thread smooth and even, the opposite effect is desired. The thread should 
be as rough as possible. By "open set" the carder will understand that 
the workers on the first and second breaker cards 'are to be set farther 
from the cylinder than is the usual custom, but not so far that' the stock 
will not be carded at all. The desired result is to have the nibs or flakes of 
silk noil pass through in their original form, or as nearly so as may be. 
The finisher will require setting a trifle closer than ' the first two cards or 
the web will not go to the rings in good condition. The spinning process 
is not different from the usual procedure for ordinary woolen yarns. As 
a result of the open setting the nibs of silk retain their form, while the 
more lofty wool is carded out to a greater or less extent, and in the process 
of spinning the wool draws and twists, with the nibs of silk noil standing 
out on the surface quite prominently. The finishing of these imitation 
ratines presents no unusual difficulty, practically the only process which 
differs from the procedure of finishing fancy cassimeres is the shearing, 
which, in the case of the type of fabrics here described, consists of run- 
ning them with the blade set well off, the object being to even the nap 
without disturbing the nubby effect which is the distinguishing character- 
istic of the goods. 



206 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

The yarns for making worsted or true ratines are prepared in a totally 
different manner. The manufacture of the original or foundation threads 
is not dissimilar from the ordinary process. It is only in the twisting that 
the yarns differ from those used in ordinary fabrics. To obtain the nov- 
elty effect in goods of this type it is necessary that a 

Special Type of Twister 
be used. Instead of the ordinary twister such as is used for making the 
ordinary plain, double and twist effects, a machine must be used which has 
a double set of rollers that will permit the delivery of the two threads at 
different speeds. In the fabric here described the ratio of yarn delivery 
is two to one. The comparatively great cost of this novelty thread is read- 
ily understood when we take into consideration the labor cost of its man- 
ufacture. To prepare the yarn for weaving it must again be twisted, this 
time a single yarn being twisted around the product of the double roll 
twister to hold the loops in place during the further process of manufac- 
ture. This is termed the "wrapper" and is significant of its purpose. 

The composite thread is made up of three distinct parts, the core or base, 
the loop thread and the wrapper. A great variety of these novelty twists 
can be produced on the double roll twister with the knotter. The 

Fabric Construction 
is as follows: The warp is dressed one end novelty yarn, one end common 
two-ply, with the filling all plain two-ply yarn. For the novelty yarn three 
sizes of worsted are used, 2-40s three-eighths blood for the core, one-eighth 
to three-eighths blood for the loop thread and l-26s quarter-blood for the 
wrapper. As comparatively few weaving mills have their own worsted 
spinning plant, it will be unnecessary at this time to go into the details of 
the yarn manufacturing process, especially as it is our intention to publish 
a series of articles at some future date taking up in detail every process of 
yarn making from grease wool to finished^ product by both the woolen and 
worsted systems. Instead of having ordinary size numbers, as is the case 
with common single or ply yarns, novelties are usually sold as having a 
certain number of yards per ounce or pound, and the price per pound 
known, these two factors render our cost calculations comparatively sim- 
ple. Owing to the cost of yarns of this type, with their relatively coarse 
size, it is very important that the weight should be looked after very close- 
ly. A comparatively slight loss in yards per pound on yarns of large di- 
ameter will materially affect the cost of the fabric. A large proportion of 
these goods are woven from yarns in the grey and colored in the piece, al- 
though the use of skein or slub-dyed yarns will enable the manufacturer to 
obtain a variety of extremely attractive styles. 

Layout: COST. 

1,344 ends; reed 11^.-2 = 64" + iy 2 " 3. 98 oz. + 5% waste = 4.17 oz. 

for listing = 65y 2 " overall. @ 80c. per lb = $ .2085 

28 picks. " 6.58 oz. + 5% waste = 6.9 oz. @ 

Finished width 54". $1.20 ;...= .5175 



Finshed weight 9% oz 



Yarn cost $ .7260 

CALCULATIONS. Manufacturing = .2000 

672 ends 2/36s % blood = 1.07 oz. Mill t « 92 60 

-J- 10% take-up = 1.17 oz. Mill cost ¥ .a^bu 

67 KQ e Q n n! l i° P 1 ' n y 9 * 3 v yardS Per lb - « K0 4 harness, straight draw. 

5.99 oz. + 10% take-up = 6.58 oz. 

28X65% h ■□■□■□ 

28 pks 2/36s % bl. , = 2.81 oz. 5 ■■"■"■ 

(36X560^2)^16 ^_ g gSSSSS 

Loom weight 10.56 oz. k dbdbdb 

There are a variety of fabrics which are practically in the same class 
as the rating described above, some of them differing in name and others 
in weight or texture, but all owing their distinctive characteristics to the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 207 

novelty yarn used in their construction. One of the most common meth- 
ods of reducing the cost of any article is to use a lower grade of material 
in its construction or to substitute a fabric which not only costs less but is 
entirely different in composition. The latter is the method used in pro- 
ducing the novelty yarn from which the so-called 

Mistral 
cloth is fabricated. To the ordinary layman it presents the appearance of 
a worsted ratine and is cleverly constructed, probably with that end in 
view. A slight investigation of the thread, however, betrays the fact that 
of the three threads composing the novelty yarn only the loop thread is 
worsted, the core being a two-ply cotton, with a single cotton thread used 
as a wrapper. The fact that it contains cotton is in no way harmful to 
the fabric, per "se, as the wearing qualities of the garment made from a fab- 
ric of this construction would in all probability be fully equal to those of 
its all-wool neighbor. This cloth is lower in texture ' than the ratine pre- 
viously described, though of practically the same weight. There are but 
20 threads to the inch in the warp, with 21 picks per inch in the filling. It 
is frequently the case that fabrics of a low texture are liable to slip, but 
that tendency is overcome in this instance by the character of the yarn. 
The dyer may have some difficulty in getting the shade on the worsted and 
cotton to match exactly, which is very essential, otherwise the goods will 
have a peculiar mottled appearance instead of the full, solid shade desired. 
A little care in the selection of the dyestuffs used should enable the dyer 
to obtain results that will be entirely satisfactory in every respect. A fab- 
ric made in this manner by a mill equipped with the necessary twisting ma- 
chinery should prove to be a 

More Profitable 
proposition than many of the more ordinary types of goods, and should 
certainly leave a greater margin for profits than an identical cloth made by 
a mill which must buy the novelty yarns ready for use. An additional ad- 
vantage in having the twisting equipment is in the fact that it will obviate 
the necessity of waiting for yarns at times when delays are extremely ex- 
pensive. The saving in the cost of the yarn will be in itself a considerable 
item during the season, and should result in an appreciable increase in the 
net earnings of the plant. There is a very decided advantage in fabricating 
the season's styles with a low texture if feasible, as the low number of 
picks will give a greatly increased yardage per loom and reduce the over- 
head charges per yard to a very great extent. The yarns to be used in 
making the novelty thread are bought all ready to put on the twister, the 
cotton on cones and the single worsted on spinning bobbins, so that the 
only expense is for the labor of twisting. The warp yarn will require 
spooling, but the filling can be woven direct from the twister bobbins, a 
saving of the expense of winding when the yarns are purchased in the 
spool. The yarns used for making the twist are, for the core 2-50s cotton, 
for the loop thread l-24s worsted, for the wrapper l-24s cotton, making the 
novelty yarn 4,048 yards per pound. The calculations herewith are for goods 
to finish 42 inches. 

Layout: COST. 

Warp 840 ends novelty twist; reed, 8 %— 2 774 oz _ + 5% waste = 8-12 oz . 

= 48%" + 1%" for listing = 50" over @ 80c . per Jb $ A06 



Filling, 21 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
840 ends, 4,048 yards per lb. = 

3.36 oz. + 7% take-up = 3.59 oz. 

21 X 50 

21 picks = = 4.15 oz. 

4,048 -h 16 



Manufacturing .172 



Net cost % .578 



Loom weight 7.74 oz. 



208 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



CLAY WORSTEDS 



For many years the clay worsted was the most popular staple for 
men's wear, no man's wardrobe being complete without a suit of black 
clay worsted. Its place to-day is filled by a variety of fabrics, but none of 
them can fully take the place of the clay. It was woven in a six-harness 
twill of high-grade yarns, not necessarily fine spun, with a clear finish. 
The result was a cloth with a full, round twill, every thread clear cut, and 
a soft, full handle. For the production of these goods the yarns should 
full and round with two turns less twist than is ordinarily put in yarns of 
a corresponding size. The warps are dressed on a sectional machine, as in 
the manufacture of fancy worsteds, beamed and then placed in the slasher 
for sizing. This is far superior to the system of wet dressing employed in 
some plants, as it permits of operating the dresser at a much higher rate 
of speed, 

Increasing the Production 

very materially, and also sizing the whole warp at one operation, which 
secures much more even results and better work. The weaving is invari- 
ably done on the two-loom system, a considerable saving in the cost of 
production. The finishing of clays differs but little from the process em- 
ployed for other piece-dyed, clear-finished cloths. The burling and mend- 
ing are performed in the customary manner, and the goods scoured with a 
pure, neutral soap. For fine quality yarns there is nothing superior to a 
well-made potash soap. It is a well-known fact that soda compounds of 
all kinds have an injurious effect on the wool fibre, which is particularly 
noticeable on the finer wools. There is a decided tendency to make the 
wool brittle and harsh to the touch, which detracts very materially from 
the soft, kindly feel desirable on this class of fabrics. The scouring should 
easily be accomplished without the use of harsh detergents, as only the 
best of oils should be used in the manufacture of the yarns, and these are 
readily saponified. From the washer the goods are taken to the rolling 
machine, passing througn a trough of hot water over a stretch roll, which 
removes all the wrinkles, to a winding drum, that carries the roll on which 
the goods are wound. The pieces should be allowed to remain on the rolls 
for at least twenty-four hours, during which time the rolls should be turn- 
ed end for end four times to prevent the water settling in any part of the 
goods. The pieces are next put through a 

Continuous Crabbing Machine, 
which gives the goods a thorough "set" and puts them in good condition 
for the dyer. There should be no trouble in bringing these goods from the 
dyehouse free from shades or streaks if the preliminary work has been done 
in a thorough manner. Upon a searching investigation it will almost in- 
variably be found that the cause of uneven goods lies outside the dyehouse. 
If troubles of this nature are encountered, it would be well to give close 
attention to the scouring and crabbing operations, as in the majority of 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



209 



cases the source of the difficulty will be found here. The pieces should 
have plenty of cold water to rinse off all traces of loose dyestuff and are 
then ready to be extracted and dried. The drying of fine goods should not 
be hurried, as the excessive heat necessary for rapid drying is very apt to 
hurt the handle of the goods. The 

Best Method of Drying 

is in the open air, but entails too much labor and loss of time for a mill 
with a production of any size. The system in common use in modern mills 
is to dry artificially with hot air. The best type of machine is the chain 
dryer, which carries the cloth between steam-heated coils by means of pins 
set about a quarter of an inch apart in the links which perforate the sel- 
vage and tenter the goods to the desired width while carrying it through 
the dryer. After back-burling, the pieces are given a few runs on the "pol- 
isher" in order to loosen up all the stray fibres and clean out the twill. The 
shearing must be carefully watched, so that no holes may be cut in the 
goods. The blade must be set with the center of the axis level with the 
edge of the ledger blade in order to give the threadbare finish characteris- 
tic of clays. After brushing, it is advisable to give the pieces a run over 
the dewing machine before pressing, which will assist in setting the finish. 
Run the goods through the press with the face to the cylinder and roll 
them up hot, allowing them to cool off on the roll. Before inspecting, give 
a light run on the dewing machine with the face up, and the result will be 
a firm, fine feeling clay of which any finisher may well be proud. 



Layout: 

4,800 ends 2/28s; reed 12 — 6 = 66 2-3" + 

1%" for listing = 68" over all. 
58 picks 2/28s. 



COST. 
18.54 oz. + 5% waste = 19.47 oz. 

of yarn required @ 84c. per lb..= $1,022 
Manufacturing = .300 



CALCULATIONS. 
4,800 ends 2/28s = 9.8 oz. + 


7% 

. — 10.49 oz. 


58 X 68 


.= 8.05 oz. 


28 X 560H-2-r 16 




18.54 oz. 



Mill cost $1,322 

Draw listing, reverse from the warp, six 
outside ends, two in heddle. 12 harness 
straight draw. 



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CORKSCREWS 

The corkscrew is a fabric in which the entire face is composed of warp 
threads so interlaced as to give the appearance of interlocking spirals, and 
receives the name from the fancied resemblance to the utensil generally 
used in the extraction of corks. They may be developed in piece dyes 
or fancy worsteds, in mixtures or with the alternate wales of contrasting 
colors. The weave is also very effective in combination with other weaves 
for producing novelties in fine men's wear. 

Not many years ago the corkscrew was an extremely popular fabric, 
and deservedly so, but the special opportunity presented by this weave for 
the use of an inferior filling which was taken undue advantage of by some 
manufacturers soon placed it among the undesirables. Another feature 



210 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



which militates against a revival of the vogue it once enjoyed is the fact 
that unless made from fine stock the corkscrew will wear shiny in less 
time than many other fabrics. To obtain the best results in a fabric of 
this character the yarns for the warp should be dry mule-spun, that is to 
say, made on the 

French System, 

as this method of spinning worsted yarns produces a somewhat softer 
thread than the Bradford or oil-spun system, and also a thread that has 
less tendency to shine after the goods are worn. The filling yarns are 
not as important, as they do not show on the face except in combination 
weaves, and may be worsted, wool or cotton, as the necessities of the case 
demand. The sample selected for analysis is a double-colored warp with 
silk decorations in combination with the brochet weave. The yarns used 
are 2-40s worsted and 120s silk for the warp with 2-40s and l-19s for the 
filling. The weave employed is the thirteen harness corkscrew, which pro- 
duces a very fine twill at an angle of approximately 30 degrees. This is 
the weave generally used for the manufacture of fine shoe-top fabrics, and 
will be found very satisfactory for fine cloths in men's wear styles. 



LAYOUT. 

Dress: 

1 blue 

44 times ^ 1 Dl ack 
44 times. u blue 

2 black 

2 silk 120 
2 black 



95 X 6 = 570 ends to section. 
9 sections 



6X 



5,130 ends. 



+ 1W 



Keed 12 — 6 — 7 — 6 — 6 — 5 = 67 l / 2 ' 

for listing = 69" over all. 
76 picks: 

1 — 2/40 black. 

1 — 1/19 black. 

CALCULATIONS. 
5,022 ends 2/40 = 7.18 oz. -f 10% 

take-up = 7.890 oz. 

108 ends 120 silk = .017 oz. + 10% 

take-up = .019 oz. 

38 picks 2/40 = 3.750 oz. 

38 picks 1/19 .-...= 3.930 oz. 

Loom weight 15.589 oz. 

COST. 
11.64 oz. 2/40 + 5% waste = 13.22 

oz. @ 90c. per lb = $ .7436 

.019 oz. 120 silk + 5% waste = .02 

oz. @ $4 per lb = .0050 

3.93 oz. 1/19 + 3% waste = 4.05 

oz. @ 80c. per lb = .2025 

Stock cost $.9511 

Manufacturing = .4500 

Mill cost $1.4011 



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19 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 211 



COTTON WORSTEDS 



The cotton worsted is a fabric with an almost unlimited number of va- 
riations in its construction. When well made, it fills its proper place in 
the lines of many of our manufacturers of the cheaper grades of clothing. 
When rightly constructed, there is no fabric made which will return, in 
wear, better value for the money invested than this much-maligned fab- 
ric. Despite the great outcry against so-called "adulterated fabrics," the 




Cotton Worsted. 

cotton worsted occupies a place in the manufacture of clothing that no 
other fabric can fill. It gives the clearness of detail in design that can be 
found in no other cloth but the fine, fancy worsted, which is too high in 
price for the clothing manufacturer to use in his low-priced lines. The 
present prejudice against the fabric is to a great extent a manufactured 
sentiment. The manufacture of these cloths is similar to the processes 
used in the production of its higher-priced prototype, and 

Requires Skilled Workmen in Every Department. 
It is quite probable that it will require much less sewing, as the supe- 
rior strength of the cotton in the warp will be found to save many broken 
ends in the weaving. Every face thread must be carefully sewed in, and' 
all knots, slugs, etc., removed. The scouring will require special atten- 
tion, or injury to the colors will result. The shearing must be close, so 
as to bring out the pattern and colors, but do not press too hard or the 
goods will have a peculiar papery handle that is extremely undesirable. 
Cotton worsteds are of three general classes, those with all-worsted face, 
worsted face warp with cotton filling, and those in which the colored 



212 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



threads in the warp are worsted. The layout herewith is for a worsted 
face warp and cotton filling. 



LAYOUT. 
6,048 ends; reed 15 — 6 = 66" + 1%" for 

listing = 67%" over all. 
58 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
4,032 ends 2/50s worsted = 4.6 oz. 

+ 10% = 5.06 oz. 

2,076 ends 2/30s cotton = 2.56 oz. 

+ 10% = 2.81 oz. 

58 picks 2/40s cotton = 3.73 oz. 



COST. 
5.06 oz. + 5% waste = 5.31 oz. & 

$1 per lb = $ .3320 

2.56 oz. + 5% waste = 2.68 oz. S> 

36c. per lb = .0603 

3.73 oz. + 5% waste = 3.92 oz. & 

44c. per lb = .1078 

$ .5001 
.3750 



Loom weight 11.60 oz. 



Manufacturing 
Mill cost . 



$ .8751 



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RATINE SERGE 

The popularity of the ratine, which has been one of the best sellers on 
the market in cottons for summer wear, has led to the development of nu- 
merous fabrics of similar appearance in wool and worsted for the fall 
season. We have previously published full manufacturing details of two 




Ratine Serge. 



of these fabrics, made with special loop yarns, and this week have select- 
ed for analysis a fabric which is made from plain yarns. The special fea- 
ture of this example is the use of fine yarns for the warp, with a compara- 
tively heavy filling, which, in combination with the weave employed, pro- 
duces a novel effect. The yarns for both warp and filling are single wor- 
sted, such as may be produced by any mill with regular equipment, and 
should be much less expensive than the novelty yarns used in the manu- 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



213 



facture of true ratings. The peculiar effect is produced by interlacing the 
warp and filling with the regular cotton weave for the most part, the rais- 
ed appearance on the face resulting from floating the filling over a portion 
of the warp. The fabric may be produced on any fancy loom which will 
hold fourteen harnesses. The fabric should be laid a trifle wider in the 
loom than ordinary clear finished cloths, to allow for a sufficient contrac- 
tion in width to bring the floats prominently on the face of the goods. The 
major part of these cloths are made in piece-dyed shades, but very pleas- 
ing results are obtained by the use of contrasting colors in warp and fill- 
ing. A variety of styles may be made by using black warp and white fill- 
ing and then piece dyeing, forming a black warp with filling dyed to any 
desired shade. 



LAYOUT. 
3,224 ends; reed 14% — 4 — 3 = 63.3" + 

1%" for listing = 64.8" over all. 
38 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
3,224 ends 1/32 = 2.88 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 3.16 oz. 

38 picks 1/16 = 4.39 oz. 

Loom weight 7.45 oz. 

COST. 

3.16 oz. + 3% waste = 3.25 oz. 

4.39 oz. + 5% waste = 4.61 oz. 

3.25 oz. @ 70c. per lb == $ .1503 

4.61 oz. @ 64c. per lb == .1844 

Stock cost $ .3347 

Manufacturing = .2300 

Mi'I cost $ .5647 



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TRICOTS 



There are two distinct classes of fabrics known to the trade as tricots. 
The first, more correctly designated as "tricot a long," is made with wool 
warp and filling, and is a warp faced cloth. The second is frequently 
made of all cotton warp with woolen filling and is the fabric commonly 
known as tricot. The cloth has the appearance of fine lines running 
either in the direction of the warp, in the tricot long or crosswise in the 
tricot. A few years ago many of our woolen mills were busily engaged 
in the production of one or the other of these well-known cloths. In the 
better grades the tricot long is a fine, firm fabric with excellent wearing 
qualities, and when made from well-blended mixtures of harmonious color- 
ings, well deserved the title "Fine Suitings," which in these days is 
often applied to cloths that are much less deserving of such a name. The 
manufacture of fine woolens such as these is an art little understood by 
many of the present generation of mill managers, and demands no little 
skill on the part of the overseers, particularly in the finishing room. The 
wool used should be fine, well-grown stock, free from burrs, and of good 
strength. 

Care in Scouring 

is essential if the best results are to be obtained. Too often the scouring 
is left to low-priced help, with the result in many cases that a lot of wool 
intended for fine spinning is so mistreated that it is impossible to draw 
it to the size desired. In scouring fine wools, particularly, it is absolutely 
essential to use the best of materials as detergents. They should be 
tested for impurities of various kinds, not alone to avoid paying fancy 
prices for material that is of no assistance in removing the dirt and grease 



214 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

from the wool, but also to be sure that they contain nothing that will have a 
deleterious effect on the fibre itself. It is a fact beyond the hope of suc- 
cessful contradiction that soda ash or the various other commonly used 
soda compounds have a very harmful effect on the physical structure of 
the wool fibre and should never, under any circumstances, be allowed to 
come in contact with fine wools. The result of their use will be the 
partial, if not total, destruction of the fine serrations that are one of the 
chief characteristics of the fibre, and also give it a crisp, harsh handle, 
similar to stock of a much lower grade and correspondingly lower price. 
Nothing better has yet beei devised for cleansing fine wools than a pure, 
well-made potash soap, the alkali is much milder in its action than soda, 
and the fact that potash salts are a constituent of the "yolk" or wool 
grease itself is evidence that it is not harmful in its nature. Even in 
potash soaps there will be found at times free caustic alkali, an ex- 
tremely harmful substance to place in contact with wool, for, if present in 
sufficient quantity, it will entirely dissolve the fibre. The test for its 
presence in soap is very simple. A drop of phenolphthalein on the soap 
will show the presence of free caustic alkali at once by the pink color im- 
mediately developed. Another prime requisite is a plentiful supply of 

Soft Water. 

If the water contains salts of lime, the soap is decomposed, the fatty por- 
tion uniting with the acids in the lime compound, which is also disinte- 
grated, forming a lime soap, which is insoluble in water and is deposited 
on the wool in the scouring liquor. The lime soap is a sort of sticky 
paste which envelopes the fibre completely and is removed with extreme 
difficulty, if at all. If not thoroughly cleansed, the stock is difficult to dye 
properly and is very apt to be uneven. Injury to the stock frequently is 
the result of excessive heat in the scouring liquor. In no case should the 
temperature be over 130 degrees Fahrenheit and is preferably kept from 120 
to 125 degrees. The goods will have a much better handle if the stock is 
dried by the cold air process, but many of our manufacturers do not use this 
system from lack of room or various other reasons. This method of dry- 
ing requires more time and greater facilities than artificial drying, but gives 
much better results. The wool is spread in a thin, even layer on wire 
screens suitably supported, and the under part of the racks boxed in. A 
powerful fan connected to an opening at one end of the boxed-in rack 
exhausts the air under the wool, drawing the air in the room through the 
wool, thus aiding in the drying operation, or forces air into the lower part 
of the dryer, which causes a current of air to pass upward through the wool 
on the screen. The latter method is to be preferred, as the wool is left 
in a more open and lofty condition for subsequent operations. In preparing 
the lots for the cards, the overseer of the card room should see that the 
blending and oiling is given proper attention. Lots containing a very small 
per cent of one color will require different treatment than lots made up 
of nearly equal quantities of the various colors or stocks. There are va- 
rious opinions as to the 

Best Oil to Use 

for lubricating the fibre during the carding and spinning, but for fine wools 
certainly an oil should be chosen which will not only perform its functions 
as a lubricant, but also can readily be washed out of the finished goods. 
It is not an uncommon occurrence to have serious difficulty in the finish- 
ing room as a result of using an inferior oil on the stock. The laying down 
of the lot for the picker should be done in such a manner that there shall 
be a thorough mixture of the various colors or stocks in the finished 
batch. A lot made up of four colors or stocks should be laid out with 
alternate thin layers of each in as nearly equal quantities as possible, and 
in feeding the picker, the stock must be taken from top to bottom of the 



Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 215 

tile. If this is done the result will be a homogeneous mixture throughout. 
The cards should have clothing set with comparatively fine wire for the 
wools used in fine tricots. The first breaker may be clothed with No. 28 
wire, and No. 30 on the second breaker and finisher. The cylinders of the 
first two cards are usually covered with sheets, but for the cylinder of the 
finisher, 

Fillet Clothing 

is preferable. The roving should be made twice the weight of the yarn 
desired, giving half draft on the mule, which will make a sound, well- 
rounded thread that will weave with no difficulty. Goods of this nature, 
which require considerable fulling or shrinkage in the finishing process, 
must be laid wide in the loom, from 70 to 72 inches will usually prove 
sufficient to give excellent results. The finishing of tricots, or other clear 
finished woolens, require the services of a skilled man, both in the fulling 
and dry finishing. The burling must be carefully performed, all knots, 
slugs, etc., removed before the goods go to the sewers, who will replace 
all threads out and similar imperfections. This part of the work must 
not be slighted, as every warp thread shows very distinctly on the face 
of the finished cloth. For the fulling, a pure, well-made soap should be 
used, the combination used by many of our expert finishers on this class 
of goods being half tallow and half palm oil, while others prefer to use the 
palm oil soap entirely. The soap should be applied in such a manner as 
to secure an even distribution on all parts of the piece, and the use of a 
soaping machine is advised for this purpose. The soap should be sufficient 
in quantity to thoroughly moisten the goods, and strong enough to start 
the grease and dirt in good shape and to hold it in suspension through the 
fulling operation. The use of a pure tallow soap is open to some serious 
objections, one in particular being the extreme difficulty with which it is 
scoured from the goods. The washing machine should have a plentiful 
supply of both warm and cold water, soft water being much the best if 
it can be obtained. 

The pieces should be run for half an hour with sufficient warm water 
to form a good lather. If a good, full-bodied soap was used in the fulling, 
this should be accomplished without the use of additional soap. Rinse 
for 20 to 30 minutes in warm water, using enough to float the dirty soap and 
other impurities from the goods in a thorough manner and give a final rins- 
ing for half an hour or possibly three-quarters in cold water. If the goods 
have been made with a mixture of low stock they may require another ap- 
plication of soap to thoroughly cleanse them before the final rinsing. 

Clear Finished Woolens 
require more or less work on a gig or napping machine, in order to 
raise the fibres which have become filled to a greater or less extent 
in the fulling and washing operations. After drying the goods are 
"back burled" and taken to the gig or the wire napper, as the case may be. 
It is necessary to use good judgment here, as a severe application on 
either machine will result in making the goods tender, one of the worst 
forms of imperfection that can occur. Goods that are damaged in many 
other ways can be sold for a variety of uses, but tender goods are prac- 
tically worthless except as rags. The napping operation must be carried 
on until, in the judgment of the finisher, the nap is sufficiently well raised 
for the shear to clean the face of the goods, without setting so close as 
to injure the thread itself. The shearing must not be unduly hastened, for 
better results will be secured by coming down slowly, with more runs, than 
it is possible to obtain by attempting to shear too closely at first. The 
fine sewers should now repair any damages that have escaped observation 
before this time, the pieces given a good brushing with a little steam dur- 
ing the final run, and they are ready for the press. The pressing should 
be moderately heavy on this class of goods, with a light steaming on the 



216 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

face as they leave the press. With well selected wools, good workman- 
ship, and proper equipment, the finished fabric will be a credit to any 
manufacturer. 

LAYOUT. 

4,200 ends; reed 15 — 4 = 70" + 1%" for 

listing = HVz" over all. 
64 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
4,200 ends 5% run = 8 oz. -f 10% 

take-up = 8. SO oz 

64 picks 5 Ms run = 8.32 oz. 





COST. 






17.12 oz. + 15% 


shrinkage 


= 20.1 




oz. @ 52c. per 


lb 




$ .653 






.432 














$1,085 




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Loom weight 17.12 oz. 

Finished weight 14 oz. 

The Filling Face Tricot 

is a type of construction seldom used except for very cheap cloths. In 
nearly every instance the warp is entirely of cotton and is purchased on 
loom beams, obviating the expense of yarn making and warp preparation. 
The warps may be white or colored, as is best suited to the type of fab- 
ric to be made. If the goods are to be piece dyed, the usual method, the 
warps should be of cutch cotton. The successful manufacture of these 
goods is one of the simplest branches of the industry, requiring no special 
skill to produce a satisfactory cloth. The chief aim of the whole force is 
production, which should be obtained with comparative ease. The warps 
should run practically from start to finish with scarcely a broken end, 
leaving the weaver free to watch the filling. There are two kinds of fill- 
ing used, a comparatively fine thread for the face of the goods, with a 
much heavier thread for the back. The peculiar ribbed appearance of the 
goods is due to the weave in part and also to the use of the large backing 
thread. An inspection of the chain plan used will show at a glance how 
the effect is obtained. It will be noticed that when the backing pick is 
put in the 

Weave Is Reversed, 

the harnesses that were raised for the previous face picker are lowered 
and vice versa. This reverse in the weave, combined with the compara- 
tively coarse yarn used as back filling, make the distinct cut filling wire 
which is the distinctive characteristic of this cloth. The stock used in 
the face filling is medium wool and shoddy, that for the backing a lower 
grade of wool with a larger percentage of shoddy. It is customary to use 
picked stock for fillings of this kind, that is, shoddy that has not been 
carded since coming from the rag picker. As such stock usually contains 
occasional lumps and hard twisted threads, it is best to have the first 
breaker card equipped with a 

Metallic Breast. 

This consists of a series of rolls covered with garnett wire which works 
the stock before it reaches the tumbler and transfers it to the main cyl- 
inder of the card. The speed of the rolls is slow, so that their action on 
the lumps and hard ends is not harsh, but pulls them apart and puts the 
stock in good open condition for the card itself. The clothing for cards 
running on this grade of stock should be set with somewhat coarser wire 
than for fine all-wool work. The first breaker should not be finer than 
No. 26 wire with 28 for the finisher. The condensers must be set 
close and the roving well rubbed in order to spin well. 

The finishing of cotton warp tricots is not much different from the 
routine process. It will be necessary to put some weight on the crimping 
box to prevent the goods from stretching during the fulling. A heavier 
soap will be necessary than for all-wool goods, with probably an extra 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



217 



quantity of alkali to overcome the effect of the impurities in the shoddy. 
In the majority of cases it will be unnecessary to gig the goods, the cut 
showing sufficiently without this treatment. Shearing too closely will bring 
the cotton warp into view, an effect that will render the goods practically 
unmarketable. In a well finished piece of tricot there cannot be seen a 
trace of the cotton warp on either face or back, the filling covering it com- 
pletely on both sides. Their chief use is as a material for cheap skirts. 



LAYOUT. 

4,500 ends 1/16 cotton; reed 15% — 4 = 
72%" over all. 

54 picks: 
2 4 run. 
1 2 run. 

CALCULATIONS. 

4,500 ends = 5.36 oz. + 5% take- 
up = 5.62 oz. 

36 picks, 4 run face = 6.48 oz. 

18 picks, 2 run back = 6.48 oz. 



Loom weight 



18.58 oz. 



COST, 
cutch cotton <i 



5.62 oz. cutch cotton ©) 24c. per 

lb = $ .0843 

6.48 oz. + 15% shrinkage = 7.62 oz. 

@ 34.2c. per lb = .1623 

6.48 oz. -(- 20% shrinkage = 8.01 oz. 

@ 20c. per lb = .1201 



♦Manufacturing 
Mill cost . . 



$ .3667 
.3000 



$ .6667 



*Low cost of manufacture is due to the 
fact that there are no costs for warp 
aside from stock. 

4 run mixture: 

60% medium wool @ 45c. per lb.= $ .270 
40% shoddy @ 18c. per lb = .072 



Cost per pound 



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Cost per pound 

run mixture: 

20% wool @ 40c. per lb = $ .080 

20% cotton @ 12c. per lb = .024 

60% shoddy @ 16c. per lb = .096 



.200 



NOVELTY (MAKINGS 



It is interesting to note in relation to the discussion now going on in 
these columns as to the possibility of arriving at a system of cost finding 
for woolen mills that the figures as to weights and costs of the novelty 
presented in this issue were made up by the designer in the mill producing 
the fabric. The cloth was analyzed by another textile manufacturer whose 
figures are practically identical, the variation being less than one per cent. 
This certainly is prima facie evidence that an accurate system is within 
the range of possibility. The subject of novelty cloakings has been dis- 
cussed at some length in a previous issue, but the popularity of these fab- 
rics the present season is one of the features of the market, and a further 
discussion of cloths of this type we think will prove of interest to our read- 
ers. 

A great many of these novelties would appear to conservative people as 
being almost too conspicuous for wearing apparel, although such does not 
seem to be the case with the majority, judging from the sale that these 
fabrics enjoy. There is a much larger profit derived from the sale of 
these novelties than from suitings. A great many small mills obtain their 
sustenance from these same fabrics, competition being too keen in the suit- 
ing line to compete with the large mills. People are will- 
ing to pay a good price for novelties in the cloth lino 
as well as in any other line. Hardly a day passes without the 



218 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



appearance of a novelty fabric at the mill, and while no doubt exists as 
to their being copied in cheaper fabrics, it is found more difficult to do 
so than would be the case regarding suitings, as luster worsted yarns 
form the component part, said yarns being used mostly for fillings that 
stand out conspicuously on the face of the fabric. The warp in these par- 




Novelty Cloaking. 

ticular fabrics is generally composed entirely of cotton, the same being 
obscured on the face. Some have a luster worsted filling face with a shod- 
dy mixture back, which is added to give weight to the cloth, quality of the 
same being not of much importance, the manufacturer using his own judg- 
ment in regard to the formula of this yarn, each having his own idea of 
the same. To determine about What width these fabrics should be set in 
the loom good judgment must be exercised. 

In case they are set too wide, the worsted yarn is liable to break up 
before the required finished width is attained. 

From 68 to 71 Inches 

would be found to be a safe width in a majority of these. The worsted 
yarn, although woven straight, forms a curly surface during the finishing 
process. Previous to finishing these goods they should be tacked to in- 
sure evenness in fulling. They are then put through a soaping machine, 
so as to acquire an equal distribution of the soap. Close attention must 
be given to the goods during the fulling process, so as to detect any break- 
ing up of the worsted yarn. Should same happen to occur following this, 
the pieces are washed and dried, then pressed, no shearing or other proc- 
ess being required. A great many of these cloths are piece dyed, and if such 
were the case, the goods should not be fulled to width, they being taken 
out of the fulling mills wide enough to allow for the shrinkage in width 
during the piece-dyeing process. Good judgment must be used as to the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



219 



speed of the dye kettle, for if it is run at too high speed the goods would 
be much too narrow by the time they were ready to be taken out. 

Two-tone piece-dyed effects are very often desired, and are usually 
woven white and black. The pattern of same might be 1 and 1 or 2 and 2, 
in fact, any desired pattern as the case may be. The white is dyed to the 
required shade, the black remaining intact. The color effect might be red 
and black, blue and black, or in fact any color desired along with the black. 
The novelty fabric given herewith is a popular one, and is finding ready 
sale in the market. It is shown here in white and black but may be piece 
dyed if desired. 



Layout: 

1,920 ends, 9 X 3 = 71" + 1%" for list- 
ing = 72%" over all. 

36 picks. 
Warp: 

Black cotton 2*4 run. 
Filling: 

White worsted 3s — 1 

Black wool 1 3-16 run — 2 2 

Black worsted 3s — 1 

Loom weight 32 oz. 

Finished weight 25 oz. 

CALCULATIONS. 
1,920 ends 2% = 8.54 oz. + 7% 

take-up = 9.14 oz. 

6 picks 1-6 white = 4.14 oz. 

6 picks 1-6 black = 4.14 oz. 

24 picks 1 3-16 black = 14.66 oz. 

Loom weight = 32.08 oz. 



COST. 

4.14 oz. white worsted + 5% waste 

= 4.65 oz. @ 68c. per lb = $ .1976 

4.14 -oz. black worsted + 5% waste 

= 4.65 oz. @ 78c. per lb = .2266 

14.66 oz. woolen -f 20% waste = 

18.59 oz. @ 20c. per lb = .2324 

9.14 oz. cotton + 15% waste = 

10.46 oz. @ 12c. per lb = .0785 

Cost of stock = $ .7351 

Manufacturing = .3000 

Mill cost = $1.0351 

WOOL MIXTURE. 

20% wool @ 40c. per lb = $ .080 

20% cotton waste @ 12c. per lb...= .024 

60% shoddy @ 16c. per lb = .096 

Cost per lb $ .200 



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10 10 10 10 



220 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



DUVETYN SUITINGS 



Duvetyns are fabrics having a fine silky nap, in appearance some- 
what resembling a velvet, but differing materially in the method of manufac- 
ture. The pile of the velvet is made in the loom and formed by i cutting 
the loops of silk formed in the weaving process, while the surface of the 
duvetyn gets its soft velvety nap during the process of finishing. It is one 
of a great variety of the fabrics technically known as "face finished cloths." 
The retail price of these fabrics bears but a slight relation to their intrinsic 
value, the retailer being governed in fixing his selling price more by the 
fact that the fabric is a novelty than by the cost. That few purchasers are 
able to form an intelligent opinion as to the real value of fabrics is a state- 
ment strongly confirmed by an examination of some of the offerings of these 
fabrics by several of our large department stores. Prices on practically iden- 
tical fabrics vary from a dollar to a dollar and a half a yard and in some 
instances an inferior fabric is priced higher than another of really greater 
value in the same house. A fabric offered at retail, in one instance, at 
$5.25 per yard is identical with that offered at $4.75 by another concern 
and is sold by the mill on regular terms for $1.62%. The retailer 

Evidently is Obtaining a Greater Profit 

than is ordinarily the case, and more than really is war- 
ranted under the circumstances. The manufacturer certainly 
is justified in feeling that the profits are somewhat unequally distributed 
and that the high cost of living should not be attributed to him entirely. 
The manufacture of this type of cloth should not be so difficult as to deter 
anyone with the necessary equipment from engaging in its production. The 
important feature wherein it differs from the ordinary type of goods is in 
the stock mixture used for the filling and the process of finishing. The 
necessary machinery is usually found in any well equipped plant. The 
warp is usually entirely of, worsted yarns, either single or two-ply, depend- 
ing somewhat on the quality of the fabric to be produced. The filling is 
composed of wool and. silk waste in the true duvetyn or may be entirely of 
wool in the imitations. The warp yarns may be bought in the open market 
or manufactured by the mill. The larger factors in the dress goods trade 
all have the necessary machinery for the manufacture of worsted yarns, 
thereby avoiding the delays incident to having yarns made by outside parties, 
and also, by no means the least important consideration, making a consider- 
able saving in the cost of production. Yarns used in dress fabrics are to 
a great extent combed from ! 

Crossbred Wools, 

the South American and New Zealand stocks forming the principal sources 
of supply, though some domestic wools as well as Australian crossbreds are 
also used. The details of manufacture of worsted yarns for dress goods are 
not essentially different from the ordinary methods, and need not be enlarg- 
ed upon at this time, as we propose to devote sufficient space for a thorough 
discussion of that subject in a separate article. The manufacture of the fill- 
ing necessary to produce the peculiar finish is unlike the usual process in a 
few essential details. In order to obtain the soft handle peculiar to these 
cloths, it will be necessary to select a fine, soft wool to blend with the silk 
used in making the filling. For this purpose the fine twelve-months Texas 
is an excellent stock. Care must be used to secure a wool free from burrs, 
or to have them all removed before the stock is carded, in order to avoid the 



Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 221 

necessity of picking them from the goods in the form of specks. A very 
important part of the preparation of the stock is the 

Scouring the Wool. 

In many mills this process is neglected, or left in charge of low-priced, 
unskilled help, with the inevitable result that the work is not properly per- 
formed, and the stock so damaged that it is impossible to use it for the pur- 
pose for which it was intended. The most common source of injury to the 
stock in the scouring process is the use of excessive heat in the scouring 
liquor, which, in combination with the harsh alkali, too often used as a de- 
tergent, has an extremely injurious effect on the physical structure of the 
wool fibre. The peculiar felting properties of wool are in a great measure 
due to the unusual structure of the fibre itself. Viewed under a microscope 
it is far different in appearance than when seen by the unaided eye. The 
fibre is seen to be composed of three distinct parts: the center a pith-like 
canal, formed of soft globular cells, surrounded by a layer of somewhat 
elongated, tapering cells, which form the greater part of the fibre. Surround- 
ing the whole is a layer of flattened cells, or horny scales, with a high luster 
in well-grown, healthy wool. This outer layer of scales completely covers 
the fibre and is attached to it at the lower end, the outer portion free from 
and projecting a little from the body of the fibre. These scales form the so- 
called serration or imbrication of the wool filament, and are one of the 
principal causes of the felting properties peculiar to wool, and found in no 
other fibre to, so great a degree. The number of serrations, together with 
the natural curl of the fibre, determine the felting qualities of the wool al- 
most entirely. The injury of these tiny scales in the scouring process will 
have an effect on the working properties of the stock which would seem 
to be very much out of proportion to the damage done. For 

Scouring Fine Wools 

only the best of materials and soft water should be used. The use of soda 
compounds in wool scouring is much to be deprecated, particularly in the 
cleansing of the finer staples. The action of the alkali is harsh in the ex- 
treme, and has a tendency to render the wool less capable of being spun to 
fine counts, and also to have a harsh, unkindly feel in the goods. The best 
detergents procurable should be used, and tests made to be sure that they 
are free from impurities of various kinds, not that all impurities are of an 
injurious character, but that the price paid may be for value received. The 
most common form of impurities found in soaps are China clay, silicate ot 
soda and resin as well as common salt. None of these have any value as 
scouring agents, and are simply added for the purpose of increasing weight. 
A few simple methods of testing soap should be familiar to every one. The 
excess of water may be easily determined by weighing accurately a small 
portion of soap, shave into thin slices and dry until it ceases to change in 
weight, the loss of weight representing the moisture. For earthy and heavy 
adulterants a simple test may be made in this manner. A small quantity of 
the soap is dissolved in water, and sulphuric acid (H2S04) added to the so- 
lution. The soap is disintegrated, the heavy impurities sink to the bottom 
and the grease and resin float. Nothing better has yet been devised for wool 
scouring than a well made, pure potash soap. This is much preferable to any 
form of soda Loap or compound of any nature containing soda. The pres- 
ence of free caustic alkali in the detergent must be guarded against, as this, 
in sufficient quantity, will dissolve the wool fibre. It may be easily detected 
by means of an extremely simple test. A drop of phenol phthalein placed on 
the soap will immediately turn pink in the presence of free caustic alkali. 
For scouring our wool we will use a pure, neutral potash soap with soft 
water. This latter item is important, as hard water is very apt to create 



222 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

trouble in later processes. Its action may be briefly described in this man- 
ner. The acid in the lime salts, which causes the hardness of the water, 
unites with the tallow and fats in the soap which is disintegrated, forming 
lime soaps which are insoluble in water and are deposited on the wool in 
the scouring bath. It is well-nigh impossible to remove this sticky, pasty 
substance which envelopes the fibre completely, but if not thoroughly freed 
from this lime soap at this time further operations are attended with consid- 
erable difficulty, particularly the process of dyeing, uneven results being a 
usual occurrence. In the scouring process the heat of the liquor is another 
item of seemingly minor importance, but such is not the case. Under no 
circumstances should the temperature of the scouring bath be allowed to 
rise beyond 130 degrees Fahrenheit, and a temperature of 125 degrees Fah- 
renheit is to be preferred. It is a common error to hasten the drying with 
too high a temperature. By far the best method of drying wool is without 
the use of artificial heat. Cloth made from wool dried in the open air will 
have a much better handle than that in which artificially-dried stock is 
used. If it is necessary to hasten the drying, the cold air method should by 
all means be used if possible. This is accomplished by forcing a current of 
air at its natural temperature through the wool by means of an exhaust fan 
or a blower. 

The dye kettle often is the scene of injury to the spinning qualities of 
the stock, and improper handling or 

Too Much Boiling Will Damage the Fibre 

so that it will be of much less value than stock which is of lower grade but 
has received proper treatment throughout. In preparing a lot for the picker 
. which contains silk, care must be taken to oil only the wool. The silk will 
absorb all the oil required from contact with the wool stock. The lot should 
be laid out with alternate layers of silk and wool, in as nearly proportionate 
parts as possible, and put through the mixing picker a sufficient number of 
times to make a thoroughly homogeneous blend. The cards must be sharp 
and set fairly close to comb out the fibres and complete the mixing. It may 
be necessary to slow up the fancy to avoid throwing out the silk, which is 
very lofty, and is readily charged with electricity. The condensers will re- 
quire to be set a trifle closer than on all-wool yarns of the same weight. The 
spinning of this stock will not materially differ from an all-wool thread. As 
before stated, the warp is entirely of worsted and is prepared as usual. The 
weaving proceeds in the customary manner, and tbe burling is done as is the 
custom on ordinary cloths. In preparing for the fulling mill, a soaping ma- 
chine is necessary to secure an even distribution of the soap over every part 
of the piece. The soap should be a full-bodied palm oil base built up with 
sufficient pure alkali to saponify the grease and oil and hold it in suspension 
through the fulling and washing operations. If the soap is pure and of good 
body it should retain sufficient vitality to cleanse the goods without any re- 
enforcement in the washer. Use plenty of warm water to float out all the 
excess soap and impurities before rinsing. Cold water may be used to rinse 
the goods, which must be thoroughly clean before going to the napper. Goods 
of this character must be 

Wet During the Napping Operation, 

which may be performed on a wire napper or the teasel gig. Water renders 
the fibre soft and pliable, so that the nap can be raised with much more ease 
and a great deal less waste of stock than would be possible were they dry 
during this process. After the nap is well raised, the pieces are placed on 
the wet brush to straighten and lay the fibres, after which they should be 
taken to the cropping shears to even up the nap and remove any long fi- 
bres. The next process is a repetition of the brushing and a treatment by 
steaming to increase the luster. This is accomplished by rolling on a per- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



223 



forated roller and forcing steam through the piece. The goods are now 
ready for drying and tentering, the usual method being to place them on a 
chain dryer, which tenters and dries in one operation. The pieces should 
now be inspected, steam brushed and are ready for market, no pressing be- 
ing necessary, as it is desired to have the nap stand up similar to a pile 
fabric. 



LAYOUT. 
3,360 ends; reed 12 — 4 = 70" + 1%" for 

listing = 71%" over all. 
60 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
Warp : 

3,360 ends 1/30 worsted = 3.2 oz. 

+.5% take-up = 3.36 oz. 

60 X 71.5 

60 picks 6 run = = 7.15 oz. 

600 

Stock mixture: 

50% fine Texas @ 52c 

50% silk @ 56c 



10.51 oz. 



COST. 

3.36 oz. + 5% waste — 3.54 oz. 



80c. per lb 


— $ .177 


7.15 oz. + 15% waste = 


8.41 oz. @ 
— .284 






Manufacturing, 60 picks 


$ .461 

— .375 



Net mill cost 



$ .836 



The above described fabric is a plain-faced cloth and a popular type for 
the present season. There are many variations and styles of these goods 
shown in striped effects produced by the introduction of silk threads at in- 
tervals so interlaced with the filling as to form a distinct cut or stripe on 
the face, as a result of there being no nap at the points where the warp is 
composed of silk threads. Many of these striped fabrics have no silk in the 
filling mixture, are woven in the grey and cross-dyed with dyestuffs which 
do not color the silk, forming stripes of a contrasting color with the ground. 
We present herewith a layout for a fabric of this type of construction: 



LAYOUT. 
4,200 ends; reed 10 — 6 = 70" + 1%" for 

listing = 71.5" over all. 
60 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,940 ends 1/30 worsted = 2.8 oz. 

4- 5% take-up = 2.94 oz. 

1,260 ends 60/2 silk = .4 oz. + 

5% take-up = .42 oz. 



60 picks 6 run = 



60 X 71.5 



Loom weight 



600 



3.36 oz. 

7.15 oz. 

10.51 os. 



COST. 

2.94 oz. 1/30 worsted + 5% waste 

= 3.087 oz. @ 80c. per lb = $ .154 

.42 oz. 60/2 silk + 5% waste = .441 

oz. @ $3.40 per lb = .094 

7.15 oz. 6 run + 15 % waste = 8.41 

oz. @ 54c. per lb = .284 

Stock cost 

Manufacturing, 60 picks .... 



$ .532 
,= .375 



Net mill cost 



$ .907 



A very much superior type of duvetyn is that made from two-ply yarns 
in both warp and filling. An example of a fabric so constructed is offered in 
one of the best Fifth avenue stores at $5.50 per yard, forty-seven inches in 
width. In another department of the same house is found a duvetyn made 
entirely of silk at $6.50 per yard in forty-three inch goods. This is a direct 
importation and is by far the best example of this type of fabric yet seen. 
The warp of the part woolen cloth is spun from fine, long-staple wool, such 
as a fine territory, and the filling is composed of fifty per cent fine wool 
blended with fifty per cent silk waste spun to eight run slack twist, twisted 
to the left, then doubled with six turns per inch to the right, making the 
equivalent of a four-run filling. A fabric of this construction should be a 
much better type for the mill from a production standpoint than those first 
described. The superior weaving qualities of a two-ply warp made from fine 
wool is not to be questioned, and should reduce the overhead charges some- 
what. The process of manufacture is not materially different from that for 
the less expensive types described above, nor is the difference in the finish- 
ed fabric so markedly apparent to anyone not familiar with fabrics. The 



224 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



greater intrinsic value of the latter type of construction will be readily rec- 
ognized by the trained buyer, and will shortly be demonstrated to the wearer 
by the rapidity with which the poorer material becomes shabby and the gar- 
ment made therefrom shapeless. In no class of merchandise is it more read- 
ily proven that the best is ultimately the cheapest. 



56" + 1V 2 " for 



LAYOUT. 

3,024 ends; reed 13V 2 — 4 = 
listing = 57%" over all. 
44 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
3,024 ends 2/48 worsted = 3.6 oz. 

+ 5% = 3.78 oz. 

44 X 57.5 
44 picks 8 run 2-ply = • = 6.325 oz. 



COST. 

3.78 oz. + 5% waste = 3.98 oz. @ 

96 cents per lb = $ .239 

6.325 oz. + 15% waste = 7.44 oz. 

@ 54c. per lb = .251 

Stock cost 

Manufacturing, 44 picks .... 



$ .590 
.= .375 



400 



Loom weight 10.105 oz. 

Filling mixture: 

50% fine wool @ 52c = $ .26 

50% silk waste @ 56c = .28 



Mill cost 

8 harness straight draw. 

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$ .965 



$ .54 



DOUBLE AND TWIST SUITINGS 

There are certain styles in men's wear which it is impossible to pro- 
duce by the use of worsted yarns, and which always appeal to those in 
search of something a little out of the ordinary. Among the fabrics of this 
type, the fine woolen made from high-grade wool in two-ply yarns is a 
favorite with many of our best merchant tailors. It possesses many ad- 
vantages over the fine worsted cloth, in that it is susceptible of being 




Double and Twist Suiting. 

developed in rather bold designs without becoming glaring, the softness 
of the yarn blending the outlines of the pattern into an extremely har- 
monious whole. It retains its shape and fresh look longer, and after press- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 225 

ing has the appearance of a new garment. For the best effect, the wools 
should be from well-grown, healthy fleeces with fair length of staple. 

In Scouring, 
especial care . should be taken to prevent injury of the fibre by 
harsh alkalies or excessive heat of the scouring liquor. The drying of the 
stock should be accomplished by the natural or cold-air method, rather 
than resorting to artificial heat, as the goods manufactured from such 
stock will have a much softer handle when finished. Avoid excessive 
poling in the dye kettle by the use of level dyeing colors whenever ob- 
tainable, and, above all, do not boil longer than is absolutely necessary to 
get the shade and fasten the color properly. 

Stock may be injured to such an extent in the operation that it will 
be found impossible to use it for the purpose for which it was intended. 
The stock must be well opened and oiled in the picking, the cards in first- 
class order and set fairly close. For work of this character the clothing 
should be set with fine wire on all the cards of the set. The first breaker 
should have wire not coarser than No. 30, with No. 32, or better yet, No. 
34 for the second breaker and finisher. With wire of these sizes in good 
condition there will be no difficulty In producing a thread that will be as 
nearly perfect as can be' obtained. The roving should weigh three run for 
six-run yarn. For the slack twist thread use two more holes of twist than 
for filling yarns of corresponding size. The twisting may be done on a 
mule or on the ordinary twisting frame as may be the more convenient 
method. The twist should not exceed eight per inch for trousering cloths 
or six turns per inch for suitings. The warps may be dressed on a dry 
frame, no size being necessary for yarns of this quality and size. 

The expense of finishing goods of this description will be less than for 
the ordinary single yarn cloth, owing to the superior strength of the two- 
ply thread. The loom production should reach 85 per cent of the possible 
capacity, materially reducing the weave room expense per yard. The burl- 
ing should be done over a sloping table, perfectly smooth, and preferably 
covered with a sheet of tin or zinc. The hard, smooth surface presented 
by the metal enables the burler to detect the knots and slugs or bits of 
foreign matter requiring removal much more easily than can be done on the 
uneven surface of the ordinary wooden bench. Every thread out, mispick 
or broken pick must be replaced by the sewers before the goods are sent 
to the wet finishing department. The 

Soap Must Be Free From Impurities 
of all kinds and evenly applied to all parts of the pieces, either by means of 
a soaping machine or by applying it to the pieces as they are in motion in 
the fulling mill. For goods with white warps, scouring before fulling may 
be advisable, but should not be necessary except in rare instances, and 
should not be resorted to unless absolutely necessary, as it requires more 
time, labor and material, increasing the cost of finishing to a considerable 
degree. If the stock has been properly handled in previous processes, full- 
ing in the grease will be found to give excellent results. For goods of this 
grade the soap should be a pure palm oil, made up with sufficient mild al- 
kali to cut the grease and hold it in suspension throughout the fulling op- 
eration. When the goods have been running ten minutes they should be 
tested to see if the soap is doing the work as it should. The piece may 
be given a twist between the hands, when, if the fulling is progressing as 
it should, the dirt and grease will ooze out with the dirty soapsuds, or the 
cloth may be held over the fingers and the thumb nail scraped up against 
them, the impurities gushing out with the soap as in the other method. 
Do not full to the width required, but allow at least an inch for shrinkage 
in the further processes of finishing. 



226 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

The washing should be started with half an hour's work in warm, not 
hot, water, which should float out the soap and dirt. Open the gates and 
rinse thoroughly, then float the goods with the cold water, rinse, drain and 
extract. There should be no occasion for adding soap in the washer, as 
with clean stock and pure materials, the soap used in the fulling should re- 
tain sufficient life to thoroughly cle-anse the goods in the washer. The 
drying is done on one of the various forms of artificially-heated ma- 
chines, which also tenters the goods to the desired width. After drying the 
pieces are back-burled, brushed and sheared. If necessary to clear the pat- 
tern, they may be given a light run on the gig, but the better plan would 
be to reed them a trifle narrower in the loom, and so lessen the fulling re- 
quired to bring them to width. After shearing, they should be brushed, 
sprayed and given a moderate pressing, face to the cylinder. After press- 
ing, give one run on the dewing machine, inspect and roll. 

LAYOUT. 

2,400 ends; reed 8y 2 — 4 = 70" + 1%" for 

listing = 71%" over all. 
44 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,400 ends 6 run D. and T. = 8 oz. 

-f 10% take-up = 8.80 oz. 

44 X 71.5 

44 picks = ■ = 10.49 oz. 

300 



Loom weight 

Finished weight 17-17.5 oz. 



COST. 








19.29 oz. + 15% = 22.7 oz. 


@ 


52c. 


$ .738 








.379 




$1,117 


8 harness. 








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SERGES 



The manufacture of staples of any kind is one requiring the best of 
equipment, modern machinery and skilled help in every department, as com- 
petition is particularly keen in this branch of the trade. In order to become 
a factor in the trade, it is practically necessary to carry on the whole process 
of manufacture from wool to finished fabrics by the same concern. There 
are comparatively few mills that can go into the market for yarns, weave 
and finish the goods in competition with mills having their own spinning 
machinery. Serges, originally, were fabrics made from medium grades of 
wool spun to about 2 -32s for light weights and having the twill clear and 
distinct. The fabric had a somewhat harsh touch with a distinct rasp when 
the fingers were rubbed contrary to the direction in which they passed 
through the press. The yarns used were invariably two-ply for both warp 
and filling. At present, the term serge covers nearly every fabric made in 
black or blue piece dye, from the seven-ounce "storm serge" for ladies' wear, 
made from comparatively low stock with single yarn for both warp and fill- 
ing, all along the line to fine twills made from high-count yarns of fine 
quality. 

One of the factors, which perhaps is the strongest in causing certain 
manufacturers to enter the staple business, is that while the margin 
of profit is smaller than on fancy goods, the market is more dependable. The 
element of design and coloring is practically eliminated, there is no great 
outlay for sample purposes before the market opens each season, and a 
major part of the harassing detail work which is 

The Inevitable Consequence 
of making fancy goods is entirely removed. Another feature that makes a 
very strong appeal to the mill owner must not be lost sight of, which is that 
at the end of the season there is no accumulation of small lots of yarns of 
various colors, a state of affairs which it is impossible to overcome entirely 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



227 



even under the best of management in a fancy mill. One of the most im- 
portant features in the manufacture of serges is the dyeing, which is done 
in kettles holding from eight to twelve pieces. There is no department in 
the mill probably that receives so much unmerited criticism as the dye- 
house. In other departments it is possible to cover up many mistakes, but 
there is little chance for the dyer to evade responsibility for any that he may 
make, and many times it is his misfortune to have the errors of others at- 
tributed to him. It is very frequently the case that shady goods are laid at 
his door, when the real responsibility for them is in some previous process. 
It is very essential for both dyeing and finishing that there should be 
a plentiful supply of soft water, or if this is not obtainable, the hardness of 
the water must be overcome by chemical means, except in cases of tem- 
porary hardness, which is overcome by the simple expedient of boiling. In 
common with nearly all goods woven in the grey, serges are woven on the 

Double Loom System, 
one operative having charge of two looms, a practice which reduces the 
weaving cost very materially. The burling and mending are much easier 
than on colored goods and need no special mention. The washing is very 
important, as any trace of soap or dirt allowed to remain in the goods will 
inevitably cause trouble for the dyer. There is no doubt but that the ma- 
jority of cloudy goods are caused by insufficient washing or improper treat- 
ment in crabbing. When the goods are thoroughly clean, they may be ex- 
tracted and are then ready for the crab. Many finishers still prefer to use 
the old style two-hole "Yorkshire Crab," and undoubtedly get very good re- 
sults. The chief objection to its use is not that the results are poor, but 
that it is a slow process and requires considerable more labor than the more 
modern method. There are on the market 

Continuous Crabbing Machines 
which perform the work very efficiently and with a minimum of labor. If 
equipped with the two-hole crab, the pieces should be run on with the edges 
guided carefully so as to make a square-edged roll, run twenty minutes in 
hot water, then twenty minutes in cold. In the second bowl give the same 
treatment but continue it for thirty minutes. After rolling from the crab, 
the pieces should be carefully wound to protect them from dirt and dust. 
They are benefited by allowing them to remain on the rolls for twenty-four 
hours before unrolling for the dyehouse. The dyeing should present no un- 
usual difficulty if the goods are clean, but if they contain soap or grease, or 
have been allowed to stand on one end since coming from the crabbing ma- 
chine, instead of being turned end for end at intervals, shady goods will re- 
sult in spite of all the efforts of the dyer. Many dyers boil out the pieces in 
from 3 to 5 per cent of Glauber's salts as a precautionary measure, and find 
that it saves a great deal of trouble and worry. In the finishing process fol- 
lowing, the procedure is the same as for any clear- finished worsted fabric. 

LAYOUT. 
3,840 ends; reed 15% — 4 = 62" + 1%" for 

listing = 63%" over all. 
64 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
3,840 ends 2/40s % blood = 5.5 oz. 

+ 10% take-up = 6.05 oz. 

64 picks l/25s % blood = 4.60 oz. g harness straight draw. 

Loom weight 10.65 oz. g «□□■■□□ 

r.norr. o □■■QDBBa 

6.05 oz. -f 5% waste = 6.35 oz. @ *. bSgbbQQB 
90c. per lb = % .357 

4.6 oz. + 3% waste = 4.74 oz. @ 

70c. per lb = .207 

Stock cost $ .564 

Manufacturing, 64 picks = .260 

Mill cost $.824 



228 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

The above layout is for a 56-inch cloth to finish 9y 2 ounces, and is a 
good example of the light-weight serges made with two-ply warp and sin- 
gle filling. The more expensive cloths are made with two-ply yarns in both 
warp and weft, which give a more durable cloth certainly but one that usual • 
ly is not of as high a texture. Below we give the layout and full particulars 
for the manufacture of a heavy-weight serge 54 inches wide, finished weight 
15 y 2 to 16 ounces. 

LAYOUT. COST. 

3,360 ends; reed 13 — 4 = 64.6" + 1.4" for 17.28 oz. + 5% waste = 18.14 oz. 

listing = 66" over all. @ 80c. per lb = $ .907 

54 picks. Manufacturing, 54 picks = .275 

CALCULATIONS. ■ 

3,360 ends 2/24 = 8 oz. + 10% MU1 cost $1,182 

take-up = 8.80 oz. 

54X66 

54 picks 2/24 = ...= 8.48 oz. 

24X560H-2-7-16 — — 

Loom weight 17.28 oz. 

Draw on eight harnesses, straight draft and weave with common twill. 
While the name serge originally was applied to fabrics such as are describ- 
ed in the foregoing article, it is used to-day in speaking of many fabrics of 
similar construction which are cross drawn and have a design developed by 
this means and various arrangements of the chain. The foundation in all 
these is the four harness even twill, the most used of all the methods of 
interlacing warp and filling of which we are cognizant. 



WOOL PLUSH 

The popularity of napped cloths for ladies' coats is one of the features 
of the goods market the present fall season. One of the close competitors 
of the chinchilla and zibeline is the so-called wool plush. The fabric as it 
comes from the loom conveys no idea of the beauty of the finished product. 
In its unfinished state it resembles a piece of burlap more than a fabric suit- 
able for ladies' wear, but a skillful finisher, with proper equipment, is able 
to transform the rough, spongy fabric into a thing of beauty. The colorings 
most favored in these cloths are rose, green and royal blue, although a va- 
riety of other shades are shown as well. The fabrication of the wool plush 
requires no special skill, and their manufacture is not at all difficult. 

The most important feature in their construction is the selection of the 
right stock for the filling. Designers and superintendents, whose entire ex- 
perience has been in mills making fine cassimeres and overcoatings, are 
somewhat at a loss when the selling agent places a fabric of this character 
before them. In these times of strenuous competition on the ordinary fab- 
rics, the ability to produce salable novelties is a considerable asset for any 
concern. Many mills owe their continued success to their versatility in fabri- 
cation and ability to produce the right thing at the moment when it is in 
greatest demand. Cloths of a novel character command a much greater 
price in the market than those of more intrinsic value but of ordinary style 
The most successful of our mills are those which are able to point the way 
rather than those who are content to follow. One of the most interesting 



Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 22a 

features of the fabric here described is the extremely low texture used to 
develop such a thick nap. The warp is entirely of cotton, thirty ends per 
inch, the weave a broken four-harness filling satin with twenty-four picks of 
a coa r ~ > woolen thread forming the greater part of the cloth. Manufacturing 
costr are relatively low, as a 

Larger Number of Looms 
can be operated per set of cards than is possible when both warp and filling 
are of carded yarns. To produce goods of this type to the best advantage, 
the mules should be of wide gauge, capable of using a bobbin of more than 
ordinary length, so that the operation of doffing may not hinder the yarn pro- 
duction. A copping machine should be a part of the equipment, as the cost 
of putting the yarn in cop form will be more than offset by the greater pro- 
duction in the weave room, owing to the decreased stoppage of the loom for 
shuttle changing. Burling and sewing are an almost negligible item in the 
finishing cost of fabrics of this kind. The warp should run with practically 
no breakage from morning until night, and due care on the part of the weav- 
er will eliminate the necessity for sewing in broken picks. 

The process requiring the greatest care will in most cases prove to be 
the carding. If the equipment is fitted for the manufacture of fine yarns, a 
few changes may be found necessary. In the production of heavy yarns 
from the stock required to produce the desired effect it will often be found 
difficult to make a side drawing that will carry from card to card without 
breaking or even to produce the drawing, as the weight of the stock will fre- 
quently break down the web under the doffer comb. This is easily overcome 
by placing a cone-shaped roll the full width of the doffer to support the 
stock. The cone may be driven from a convenient shaft by means of a belt 
or piece of spindle banding, with a surface speed approximately that of the 
doffer. In place of the 

Overhead Carriers 
in common use with the Apperly feed, a "creeper" may be substituted which 
will not strain the drawing. The tube for twisting the drawing should have 
a large aperture and sufficient length to support the drawing directly after 
it leaves the doffer roll. The condenser aprons should be set with a fairlj 
coarse gauge, excessive rubbing having a tendency to form twits. The rov- 
ing must be made less than half draft, usually two-thirds will give the best 
results and form a round, plump thread. The finishing machinery required 
is that usually found in a fancy cassimere mill, with the addition of a wet 
gig. The fulling is performed as usual with the goods tacked face inside, 
then a thorough washing to remove all the dirt and soap, otherwise it will 
be found extremely difficult to raise the nap nicely, the soap or dirt remain- 
ing i,n the pieces having an effect similar to paste or glue, binding the fibres 
together in a compact mass. While the goods are still wet, place them on 
the rolling machine to remove all wrinkles and allow them to stand over 
night on the rolls if possible. 

An important adjunct to the wet gig is a supply of pure, soft water. The 
nap may be raised much more easily while the fibres are rendered soft and 



230 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



pliable by the moisture with much less waste of stock. When the napping 
process is completed, the pieces are ready for the dyehouse, where they are 
colored in a kettle holding from six to twelve pieces. Do not bring to a boil 
too rapidly, but give ample time to secure penetration in order to avoid the 
"hungry" look sometimes seen in piece-dyed fabrics. During the dyeing, it 
is essential to have the pieces run in such a manner that the water is shed in 
the direction of the nap. Rinse thoroughly before removing from the kettle, 
place on the wet brush and have the nap well straightened, then roll on per- 
forated cylinders and blow steam through followed by cold water, change 
ends, repeat the steaming and cooling, allow to remain on the roll at least 
six hours, then dry to width. One run on the shear to remove the long fibre 
is sufficient, give a thorough steam brushing and the goods are ready for 
market, no pressing being required. 

LAYOUT. 

Warp: 

1,680 ends; reed 6 — 4 = 70" + 1%" for 

listing- = 71%" over all. 
24 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
1,680 ends 2/16 cotton = 4 oz. + 

10% take-up . . . „ „ _ = 4.4 oz. g harn6M straIght draw . 

24 picks 7/10 run = = 28.1 oz. 

70 ■DBODQBOCO 

Loom weight 27.5 oz. . ggggggBSSB 

STOCK MIXTURE. g PSSraSaSE 

60% B super @ 40c. = $ .24 O ggREgRRggR 

40% white noils @ 35c = .14 fi HhDDDBDDDIi 

• fe -~ 

$ .38 I 

COST. | 

4.4 oz. cotton @ 22c. per lb = $ .0605 

23.1 oz. woolen + 20% waste = 

28.88 oz. @i 38c. per lb = .6859 

Cost of stock • $ .7464 

Manufacturing, 24 picks = .2544 

Net tost $1.0008 



No fabric has yet been developed which is better adapted for the use 
its name indicates than the outing flannel. It is the ideal for tennis or 
vacation wear, whether at mountain or seashore, and is adapted for either 
men's wear or ladies' garments. The fabric is light and cool, drapes well 
and is susceptible of a great variety of uses. It should be made of fairly 
fine stock spun to five runs or finer in order to secure the firmness desired 
without becoming bulky or clumsy in appearance. The wools should be 
carefully sorted and all defective locks thrown out. Especial care must 
be given in the scouring operation to avoid injuring the working qualities 
of the wool. The soap used should be a well-made potash compound free 
from caustic alkali and impurities of every kind. The scouring liquor in 
either bqwl of the machine should never be warmer than 120 to 130 degrees, 
as extreme heat has an injurious effect on the fibre and may so 

Affect Its Spinning Qualities 
that it cannot be drawn to the desired size. During the picking opera- 
tion there should be an application of four quarts of oil to 
each hundred pounds of wool. The use of a good red or lard oil is much 
preferable to the mineral oils, many of which are put out under the name 
of "Wool Oils." Mixtures in which one of the colors forms a very small 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 231 

percentage should be run through the mixing picker at least three times 
in order to secure a thoroughly blended mix. The cards should be in first- 
class condition, the clothing not coarser than No. 28 wire on the first breaker 
and No. 30 on the second breaker and finisher. The setting must be suffi- 
ciently close to clear the stock, but not close enough to injure the fibre. If 
the stock has been properly selected and is well carded, there will be no 
trouble in spinning it at 40 per cent draft, which will insure a strong elastic 
thread that will weave perfectly. The weave employed in this fabric is the 
four-harness even twill, and as the goods are laid wide in the loom they 
will take the picks very easily, in fact the ease of the weave may lead to 
uneven goods, unless special care is taken to see that frictions on the beam 
are nicely adjusted, and that the take-up is in good order. With good yarn 
for warp and filling, the goods should come from the loom in such condi- 
tion that the burling and sewing will not require much help, four girls 
should be able to take care of the production of 40 looms easily. Goods of 
this character are preferably 

Fulled in the Grease, 

and will require special care in this operation. Unless the fulling room is 
provided with a soaping machine it would be advisable to remove the 
stretch plates from the mills and in their place fit up a trough which will 
guide the cloth into the rolls nicely, having a slight flare toward the front. 
Instead of applying the soap cold, have it sufficiently warm to flow through 
the spout of a can similar to an ordinary sprinkler without the spray 
end. Provide suitable steps or small platform to enable the fuller to reach 
the top of the mill easily, and when the pieces are ready for work start the 
mill. Open the top of the mill and pour the soap on the pieces as they 
pass through the trough to the rolls, vibrating the spout of the can from 
side to side, so the soap will be well distributed. In an experience of many 
years, this method of soaping has never failed to give excellent results on 
light goods that frequently are hard to bring out perfect. All wool flannels 
will require but a short time to full, and as soon as they are up to width, 
should immediately be transferred to the washer. No additional soap should 
be necessary to cleanse the goods thoroughly. First they should have 20 
minutes' work in warm water which should lather up in good shape and 
float out all the dirt and oil in the goods, if, and this cannot be too strongly 
emphasized, a good oil was used in the picker house, and 

Pure Soap 

in the fulling. There are many soaps on the market which appeal to the 
purchaser because of their low price, but in many cases they are much 
more expensive than a more costly article. For fulling flannels no tallow 
soap should be used, as in most cases it is washed out with considerable 
difficulty. A pure palm oil soap free from impurities, with no trace of free 
caustic alkali is the best for fulling these fabrics. It is advisable to make 
a test of the soap occasionally to be sure that it is not loaded with various 
impurities that add weight but have no value as detergents. A small quan- 
tity may be dissolved in water, then treated with sulphuric acid. The soap 
is disintegrated by the acid, the heavy earthy impurities sink to the bottom 
of the solution, and the fatty portion floats on the top. It is well known 
that caustic alkali will entirely destroy the wool fibre if in sufficient quan- 
tity, and in smaller amounts has a very deleterious effect on the physical 
structure of the fibre, causing it to be tender and lose the soft handle so 
much desired. Its presence in the soap may readily be detected by placing 
a drop of phenolphthalein on the soap, when a pink color is developed if 
it contains free caustic alkali. Wash the soap liquor off with plenty of 
cold water and allow the goods to rinse until every trace of soap is elimi- 



232 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



nated, then dry about two inches wider than the finished width. After 
back burling they should be inspected before running into the shear. In 

Shearing Flannels 

the blade must be set off somewhat, as the finish desired is not close. The 
nap should be fairly thick and the raising brush in sufficiently good contact 
to lift the fibres into position for the blade to clip them off evenly. Before 
pressing the goods should have one or two runs on the steam brush which 
will put them in excellent condition for the press. If rolled on the press 
and allowed to cool off on the rolls before the final inspection, the goods 
will not only handle better, but will also retain the finish to a greater 
degree. 



7 0" 



LAYOUT. 
2,800 ends; reed 10 — 4 = 
listing = 71%" over all. 
40 picks. 
2,800 ends 5 run = 5.6 oz. 

10% 

7iy 2 X40 
40 picks 5 y± run = 



+ 1%" for 

+ 



.Loom weight 



525 



6.16 oz. 
, = 5.45 oz. 
11.61 oz. 



COST. 

11.61 oz. + 15% shrinkage = 13.35 oz. 

13.35 oz. @ 52c. per lb = % .434 

Manufacturing, 40 picks = .360 

Mill cost 



S harness, straight" draw. 
CHAIN. 

U HODHna 

g DHCQMO 
£ DDIIDDII 
" IDDIiaOl 



$ .794 



SHEPHERD PLAIDS AND TARTANS 

The popularity of the various Scotch effects is very much in evidence 
in the dress goods market the present season, and a description of some 
of the best known patterns in these fabrics may not be untimely. The 
shepherd plaid, the best known of any of the tartans, is a simple black and 
white even check of different sizes. In men's wear the 4 x 4 is probably 
the size most in favor, while in women's wear the larger sizes predominate. 
The tartan plaids are varied in sizes and colors from the brilliant contrasts 
of the Royal Stuart to the dull blues and greens of some of the more lowly 
clans. There is a wide variety of tartans shown this season in both wool 
and worsted goods, the type selected for analysis being a woolen fabric 
manufactured by one of our best known New England mills. The stock 
used is a B super wool, which can be purchased at prices from 34 cents for 
a grey suitable for the dark colors and 38 cents for a stock which will color 
into the lighter shades used. By a combination of these stocks it is pos- 
sible to make up a stock mixture at a very moderate price. The 

Texture of the Fabric 
is low, counting 38 ends per inch in the warp and 36 in the 
filling. The only secret in the manufacture of these goods is open to every- 
one, modern equipment and efficient management, a combination that is 
sure to give satisfactory results at any time. The carding and picking are 
in charge of an expert in the manufacture of yarns from low-grade wools, 
who is capable of getting the most possible yarn from a given amount of 
stock. The production of the mules is higher than that obtained in tbe 
average mill and of good quality, so that there is no loss of time in the 
weave room as a result of poor yarns. The finishing of goods of this char- 
acter is similar to the process used in the making of any ordinary cassi- 
mere. All goods are fulled in the grease with a good grade of palm oil 
soap, free from impurities of all kinds, built up to the required strength by 
use of a pure, mild alkali. From the fulling mills they are taken directly 
to. the washer, where the grease and dirt are readily floated out in a bath 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 233 

of pure warm water, which must be soft, if clean goods are to be obtained. 
The drying is done with a chain dryer in a moderate heat, the goods back 
burled, brushed and sheared. After shearing they are inspected over a 
perch and imperfections repaired if any are found. A run over the brush 
precedes the pressing, which is followed by a final examination before rolling 
up for shipment. 

LAYOUT. 11.96 oz. + 20% waste = 15 oz. 

^TsO ends- reed 8—4 — 67V." 4- IV." 15 oz. @ 34.2c. per lb = $.321 

' for listing = 69" overall. + % Manufacturing, 40 picks = -275 

Filling: Mill cost $.596 

36 picks. Selling .170 



STOCK AVERAGE COST. $ _ 766 

70% grey B super @ 34c = $ .238 Profit .084 



30% ordinary B super @ 38c = .104 



$ 342 
2,160' ends 4 run = 5.4 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 5.94 oz. 

36X69 

36 picks 4% run = = 6.02 oz. 

4.125 

IiOom weight 11.96 oz. 



Selling price $ .850 



GABARDINE DRESS GOODS 



One of the much advertised new fabrics for dress goods purposes is the 
gabardine, which originally was used solely for the manufacture of outer 
garments, such as cloaks suitable for protection from the rain. In ancient 
times the term was applied to the garment itself and had no reference to 
the material from which it was made, but at the present time the name 
gabardine is used solely to denote the fabric, which is used for a variety of 
purposes. In the heavier weights it is commonly used to-day in the manu- 
facture of raincoats, and when so used is usually treated either by chemical 
means or mechanical applications, so as to render it both repellant and 
practically waterproof. The methods of waterproofing are many, and the 
end in view is accomplished in a variety of ways. Some of the goods are 
treated in the washer with various mineral salts after scouring, while a 
method pursued by other manufacturers is to 

Apply the Waterproofing Material 
in the form of a waxy mixture by means of friction of the cloth over a 
suitable receptacle filled with the substance used, as the goods enter the 
press. The action of the press, together with the heat present, distributes 
the proofing and causes it to thoroughly permeate the fibres and become 
to all intents and purposes an integral part of the cloth itself. It is odor- 
less, colorless and elastic, causing no perceptible difference in the appear- 
ance or handle of the goods, but will not permit of water passing through. 
It would naturally be supposed that such treatment would render the goods 
impervious to the passage of air, making the garments extremely uncom- 
fortable to wear, but such is not the case, and for this reason, fabrics so 
treated have to a great extent superseded the rubber-coated cloths hereto- 
fore so extensively used in the production of rainy-day garments. It is 
possible to treat fabrics made from cotton, wool, worsted or mohair so that 
ordinary suitings may be made waterproof, enabling one to dispense with an 
extra garment as protection against the inclemency of the weather, if it is 
so desired. 

The larger proportion of gabardines are made in the single cloth con- 
struction, though for wear in the colder weather there are fabrics produced 



234 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

with, two systems of warp, having a filling common to both and also true 
double cloths. The latter type of construction is used almost entirely for 
the manufacture of fabrics with plain or single tone face, with fancy back, 
usually in the form of plaids, which give the appearance of a lining to the gar- 
ment. The manufacture of fabrics of either type requires no special machin- 
ery, nor is the waterproofing a process of any particular difficulty. The process 
of proofing after scouring can be carried on in the ordinary type of washing 
machine in common use in woolen and worsted finishing rooms, while the 
"dry" system of proofing requires a suitable receptacle for the proofing 
material, with means for placing in contact with the face of the goods as 
they pass toward the press cylinder. In the better grades, gabardines are 
made from two-ply yarns, both in warp and filling, the less expensive 
cloths having two-ply warps and single filling. The type of fabric selected 
for analysis is nine ounces in weight and fifty-four inches wide inside the 
listing, intended for ladies' suitings. We have chosen a fabric selling at 
retail over the counter of our department stores at $2.50 per yard. This 
price 

May Seem Extremely High 

for a fabric of the weight and texture here described, but it must be remem- 
bered that the retail price is of necessity high compared with the mill cost, 
owing largely to the very extravagant merchandise methods in vogue. 
This is more especially true of merchandise usually purchased by women. 
They require large, well lighted stores, with ample show rooms, rest rooms, 
quick service and, in most instances, delivery of even the most insignificant 
purchases. This method of doing business entails on the merchant an enor- 
mous expense for rent, heat, light, and possibly the greatest of all for serv- 
ice. In this latter item is included the cost of maintaining an elaborate 
delivery equipment, by means of which milady may have a spool of silk 
delivered at her residence. All these items are a very material aggregate in 
the expense of conducting a mercantile business and add not a little to the 
cost of goods to the ultimate consumer. While it is possible for many mills 
to market their product for from 3 to 5 per cent, the cost of selling at retail 
in many instances is over 25 per cent, which, with a fair profit for the 
merchant, necessitates a considerable advance over the price at which the 
goods are purchased from the manufacturer. 

In order to manufacture piece-dyed gabardines at a fair profit it is 
almost imperative that the mill manufacture its own yarns. In these days 
of hard competition on staple and semi-staple cloths no item of saving 
should be neglected, profits are in the large turnover with expense of man- 
ufacture reduced to the lowest possible figure. The successful mill must 
eliminate, as far as possible, paying profits to other manufacturers by carry- 
ing on every process required to turn out the finished goods in its own plant. 
Another great advantage in so doing is the fact that many tedious waits for 
yarns may be avoided by a mill equipped to supply its own needs in this 
direction. The objection may be made that the expense of such an equip- 
ment is prohibitive to the small weavers, which may be very true, and it 
is also true that, as a general proposition, the small weaver should not 
attempt to manufacture goods which are generally regarded as the logical 
product of the large corporation. The opportunities for the smaller mill 
are varied and extensive enough without entering this field. For the fabric 
under discussion we shall need a 

Fine Territory Wool, 

which may be purchased in to-day's market at 20 to 21 cents, which, with 
the ordinary shrinkage, will cost 50 to 52 cents clean. This cost is the 
average for the whole fleece, and to this must be added sufficient to allow 
for the lower value of the sorts rejected. The scouring of wools of this 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 235 

grade should be done with the best detergents obtainable, free from impuri- 
ties of all kinds and, above all, with no trace of free caustic alkali. A test 
of the materials should be made frequently, so that no lot may be used with 
is not up to the standard of quality, not alone to check cost against value, 
but, more important than the question of cost, to see that they contain noth- 
ing which is harmful to the fibre itself. Soaps are possibly the most fre- 
quently adulterated materials purchased by the manufacturer and should 
be often subjected to tests for value and cleansing properties. Adulterants 
in common use are china clay, common salt, silicate of soda and resin; 
also an excess of moisture is frequently present. Tests for all these are 
so simple and well known that they need not be given in detail at this 
time. It is of the utmost importance that the detergents contain no free 
caustic alkali, the detection of which is simple and requires no apparatus 
whatever. A drop of phenolphthalein placed on the soap in question will 
immediately develop a pink color if free caustic alkali is present. The use 
of hard water and excessive heat are two things to be avoided in wool 
scouring, the first from the fact that it is practically impossible to scour 
wool by its use and the second because too high a temperature in the scour- 
ing bath has an injurious effect on the fibre, rendering it less capable of 
being worked to advantage in subsequent processes. In many cases wool 
which should easily be spun to 40s or finer cannot be spun finer than 32s 
or 33s, because of bad handling in the scouring room. Instead of rinsing 
the stock, as is customary in scouring clothing wools, the last bowl should 
contain a 

Weak Scouring Liquor, 

which will act as a lubricant in the carding, and the stock should not be 
too thoroughly dried, as the slight moisture retained in the fibre will permit 
of more easily opening the stock in carding, produce less waste in the card- 
ing with a material reduction of the noils, as there will be a smaller num- 
ber of short broken fibres to be removed by the combs. By the use of 
well selected wools, properly treated, the percentage of noils made may be 
reduced to 12y 2 per cent, or possibly less, a material reduction in the ulti- 
mate cost of the yarn, as the yarn cost is intimately associated with the 
quantity which may be spun from a given amount of wool. The inter- 
mediate operations, gilling, drawing, etc., usually present no difficulties, but 
on the roving frames there are opportunities for producing poor work that 
should be carefully avoided. The top rolls should be examined at frequent 
intervals and all defective rolls replaced with those that are perfect, so that 
imperfect yarns and slugs may not cause extra work in the finishing room. 
The filling, used single in the example, should have especially good 
care, as there is no opportunity for inspection of this, it being woven 
directly from the spinning bobbins in nearly every instance. Inspection of 
the warp yarns should be thorough and is best performed as the yarns are 
spooled, or rather run from one spool to another over a board painted black, 
in the case of yarns in the grey; in fact it will be conducive of better re- 
sults if yarns to be dyed are 

First Spooled and Inspected 

in this manner before putting into skeins. While it is the common practice 
to dress piece-dye fabrics of this character on dry frames and weave with- 
out sizing the warps, better results will be obtained if the warps are run 
through the slasher and given a slight sizing. To many this will appear as 
an unnecessary expense, but the consequent better production in the weave 
room with reduced expense of sewing will in most cases overbalance the 
cost of this operation. It is by such methods as these which tend to reduce 
the most expensive item in production cost, that is, hand labor, that man- 
ufacturing expenses are reduced to a minimum and the production materi- 



236 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

ally increased. There are probably no mills making this type of fabric 
which do not operate on the two-loom system, and it is essential that the 
warps should be as nearly perfect as possible. Careful attention to details 
that are apparently unimportant are, therefore, required in order that the 
weaver may be able to give the greater part of his time to watching the filling 
and avoiding imperfections of various kinds. The fixer should see that every 
part of the loom is in perfect adjustment to do the best possible work, 
shuttles smooth, reed straight, and all straps in good condition, with the 
stop motion in perfect working order. Under these conditions an 82-inch 
loom with 17-ounce shuttles may easily be operated at a speed of 120 picks 
per minute. After the cloth is taken from the loom it should be inspected, 
imperfections marked and the yardage, with other necessary data, recorded 
on sheets provided for this purpose. 

The Burling Requires Care. 

All knots should be raised and broken off with ends long enough to prevent 
drawing back during the finishing. In addition to performing the actual 
work of burling the operatives should mark every imperfection needing the 
attention of the sewers, which may have escaped the notice of the 
percher. The sewers must repair all threads out and mispicks, replace 
hard twist threads and reduce the slugs or sew in perfect yarns to replace 
them. All work of this nature should be done in the flannel, if possible, 
as there is much less liability of its showing in the finished fabrics than 
if made after the goods have been scoured. From the sewers 
the pieces are taken to the wet finishing room and should be scoured with a 
light neutral soap, either a palm oil or potash soap would do the work very 
nicely. A tallow soap is never advisable for worsted scouring, as it is not 
easily removed and may lead to serious trouble in the dyehouse. As there 
is comparatively little dirt or oil in the goods it will not be necessary to 
use a soap of much body or strongly fortified with alkali. In the majority 
of cases a mixture of two ounces of soap to a gallon of water with two to 
three ounces of urine substitute will cleanse the goods thoroughly. Unless 
the pieces are to lie some time before dyeing they need not be dried but 
taken at once to the continuous crab from which they will emerge thoroughly 
set and rolled tightly on wooden rolls, where they should remain at least 
24 hours, the rolls being turned end for end at intervals of six or eight 
hours. 

If the goods are free from soap and dirt there should be no trouble in 
bringing out perfect goods free from shades either from end to end or side 
to center. Should there be any doubt in the mind of the dyer, it might be 
well to give them a preliminary boiling out in Glauber's salt. The kettle 
should not be overcrowded nor brought to a boil too rapidly. When brought 
to shade cool off, rinse, extract and dry. A run on the brush will put the 
pieces in condition for shearing, an operation requiring considerable care 
The shear itself must be in first-class condition in order to give the thread 
the finish desired. After shearing, the goods should be perched, and im 
perfections repaired that may be found, then brushed, dewed and pressed. 

■LAYOUT. COST. 

5,120 ends; reed 16X 5 = 64" + 1%" for 6.39 oz. + 5% waste = 6.71 oz. <8> 

Msting- = 65 Vz" over all. 96c. per lb = $ .4026 

90 picks 5.27 oz. + 3% waste = 5.43 oz. @ 

CALCULATIONS. 82c. per lb = -2783 

5 120 ends 2/48 = 6.09 oz. + 5% ~^ ^^ 

9o t p'ick8 p i/32 '.■;.■.■.■.':::::::: :::::= liilt Manufacturing 90 picks = hm 

T.oom weight 11.66 oz. Net mil1 cost $1.1059 

Finished weight 10 oz. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 237 



BEDFORD CORD 



The type of fabric known as Bedford cords are being shown for fall in 
a variety of constructions and a wide range of colors. It is some little time 
since these fabrics have been among the leaders in popular favor, and as 
they are selling well this season, it may be that an analysis of two of the 
best sellers will be acceptable to our readers. The lighter weights of these 
cloths are particularly well adapted for suitings and a slightly heavier cloth 
is made up into coats that are very attractive. The present season they are 
shown in solid colors as well as fancies, the most popular styles being de- 
veloped in a line of mixtures with 

Silk Decorations. 

The manufacture of these fabrics is not particularly difficult and can be 
undertaken by any mill having fancy looms with a sufficient number of 
harness. The finishing is the same as for the larger part of worsted dress 
goods and requires no special machinery of any kind. The warps may be 
made of either single or two-ply yarns, the filling in nearly every instance 
is single, woven from the cop or bobbin as it comes from the spinner, with- 
out rewinding, a considerable saving in time and lab r. If single yarns are 
used for the warps, they must be dressed on a wet frame, and well sized, 
otherwise the weaving will be accomplished with a great deal of difficulty 
and consequent loss of production. It cannot be emphasized too strongly 
that success in the manufacture of dress goods or, in fact, of any fabric, is 
to a very large degree dependent upon the use of stock or yarns suitable 
for the production of the goods. This is particularly true in the manufactur- 
ing of cloths in which single yarn is used for warp. The yarn must be spun 
from long staple fine wools and given careful attention in every process or 
the results will be far from satisfactory. 

LAYOUT. 

■■lllll~l"^l r ] 3.S6S ends; 16 reed, 4 in dent = 62" 4- 

E-i □■□■■□■«MQB 1%" for listing ■= 63%" over all. 

ft ■nanannaaaa 68 Picks. 

y ■■aaataaaoBG ,. . T , .., ~„„ 

A □■□"anaaBana CALCULATIONS. 

fe IDIDIUIIIiri 3 ' S6 S ends 1/26 = 4.25 OZ. + 10% 

take-up = 4.67 oz. 

78X63% 

.„ 78 picks = = 4.33 oz. 

11 32X560-4-16 ■ 

10 10 Loom weight 9.00 oz. 

9 9 

T 8 7 8 COST. 

. 6 9 oz. + 5% waste = 9.45 oz. & 

4 4 ° 75o. per lb = $ .433 

3 3 Manufacturing = .375 



11 Mill cost $.808 

Finished width 52". 
Finished weight 8 oz. 

Some very pleasing variations from the plain fabric described above 
are obtained by the use of slub-dyed yarns instead cf the grey which was 
used for the piece-dyed cloth. The designer's skill in weave combination 
can also be called into play with some very effectiv results, the tasteful 
blending of colors adding to the beauty of the finished fabric. There are 
several very pleasing effects of this character among the offerings for the 
new fall season. Several styles noticed particularly have threads of silk 
twist to bring out the pattern, while in some of the most attractive the 
decorative threads are of raw silk. "Others are made with the ground en- 
tirely composed of nicely blended mixtures or twists of contrasting colors. 



238 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Details are given below, for a novelty with a plain warp, and three colors 
used in the filling, producing an odd spot effect in alternate ribs. 



LAYOUT. 
3,868 ends; 16 reed, 4 in dent = 62" 4- 

1%" for listing = 63y 2 " over all. 
68 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
3,868 ends 1/26 = 4.25 oz. + 10% 



78X65% 



take-ut) 

78 picks 1/32 

32X560-^16 
Loom weight 



4:67 oz. 
. = 4.33 oz. 



COST. 
9 oz. + 5% waste = 9.45 oz. (5) 85c. 

per lb = $ .502 

Manufacturing = .425 



Mill cost 



.927 



FILLING PATTERN. 



■■■■DBDDDHDBDaDD 

DOIDIDIDIIUDD 
■ ■■■GBmDMLMGBU 
BGBGBGGGVGVBBBGB 

BBBBGBaaaBGBGBaa 

[ IDIIDIGCLJIIIinG 
BBBBaBaBDBBDBDBD 
BQBOBnDQBQBBBBCB 



Another Example, 

showing a different weave combination with decorations of raw silk, is given 
in the layout below. In this style the ground weave is the eight-harness 
satin instead of the brochet used in the two previous fabrics. The warp 
is a two-ply mixture thread, the filling single yarns of the mixture. The 
comparatively loose weave employed gives a cloth that is much softer than 
either of those preceding it. 

LAYOUT. COST. 

4,500 ends; 14% reed, 5 in dent = 62" 4- 

1%" for listing = 63%" over all. 
70 picks. 

Finished width 52". 
Finished weight 7 oz. 

CALCULATIONS. 
600 ends 60/2 silk = .19 oz. -4- 

5% = .199 oz. 

3,900 ends 2/56 worsted = 3.98 oz. 

+ 5% = 4.180 oz. 

70X63% 
70 picks 1/36 wstd. = 3.530 oz. 



.199 oz. + 5% 
$3.00 per lb. 


waste = .209 


oz. 


& 

& 


$ .0510 


4.18 oz. + 5% 
$1 per lb. . . 


waste = 4.39 


oz. 


.2743 


3.53 oz. + 3% 
86c. per lb. 


waste = 3.64 


oz. 


.1820 












$ .5073 


Manufacturing, 






.4000 



$ .9073 



Loom weight 



36X560-1-16 



7.909 oz. 

DRESSED. 



60/2 silk. 
2/56 worsted. 



BBBGBBBBflD 

■ ■■■■■IJIOI 

■ lamii 

■■■■aiiiDi 

■1BIRRI I 

BBDBBBBBDB 
BBBBBDBBBD 
DBBBBBBBDB 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 239 



BEAVERS 



In various districts in England the fabric which we call beaver is 
sometimes designated as kersey, the two fabrics being very 
similar in many respects, and are therefore often classed 
as the same. In other districts they are known as a soft-finished kersey, 
which is the true description of a beaver cloth. Again in Scotland there is 
a beaver fabric which is altogether different from any of the above. The 
Scotch beaver is a soft, spongy cloth, something like a chinchilla in con- 
struction, well napped, and in place of the chinchilla finish it is cropped to 
show a fur-like finish. The nap is fairly long, the final napping being done 
without the use of the laying brush, and the nap stands up fluffy and fur- 
like. 

In our markets the beaver cloth is generally understood to be almost 
the same as a kersey, but of a softer make, adaptable for ladies' eloakings, 
and it stands in the same relation in the cloaking trade as the kersey does 
in the men's wear overcoating market, and it may, therefore, be designated 
as a sister fabric to a kersey. There are two kinds of beavers, "hard backed," 
that is, the back is finished natural without any gigging, while the soft 
backed beaver is made with a quality of stock which can be napped into a 
soft, fluffy back. Very often camel's hair is used in the backing, and when 
napped it gives a bulky, soft piece of cloth, with a fine face similar to a 
kersey. It is usually dyed into fancy shades, such as tans, blues, browns, 
etc., suitable for the cloaking trade. There has been little or no demand 
for beavers for many years, the trade being mostly on rough-faced fabrics 
of a cheviot nature. The 

Processes in Manufacturing 
beavers are very similar to the manufacture of broadcloths and kerseys, 
and a fine, good felting wool for the face is absolutely necessary in order 
to get a desirable nap. The cloth is laid narrower in the loom, as it is not 
necessary to full so much in width and as less fulling is required in length, 
the cloth must come heavier from the loom than a kersey, cloth, that is 
heavier in proportion to the finished weight. These are the main points of 
difference, and the manufacturer must guide himself in making beav.ers by 
remembering that they are a soft-finished fabric, not hard like a kersey. 

The face yarns, both warp and filling, are spun fine, the average being 
4-run warp and 4^ -run filling, and in many fabrics it is even spun finer, but 
when the latter is the case there is danger of getting too thin a face, that 
is, the veneer of fine yarns is very thin, and unless great care is taken in 
the napping there is a possibility of getting the face soft and tender, which 
would render the cloth unfit for use in a serviceable garment. In all face- 
finished fabrics, such as broadcloths, kerseys and beavers, the finishing 
process plays a most important part, in fact, the finishing of such goods 
is the all-important part, and will either make or mar the goods. The fin- 
ishing process includes everything from the loom to the case. The cloth as 
it comes from the loom is totally unfit for use. It may be likened to a build- 
ing which has just passed out of the masons' or bricklayers' hands and is 
ready for the plasterers, carpenters and painters to beautify and complete. 
It is in a very imperfect condition, full of knots, broken threads, slubs 
grease, etc. The aim of the finisher is to remove all these imperfections, 
cleanse the cloth and restore the natural brightness and luster to the wool. 

A mere glance at the different wools used and the various fabrics made 
for both ladies' and gentlemen's wear will show that several processes are 
necessary to get the 

Various Finishes. 
In fact we may say that every variety of cloth has its own peculiar 
process of finishing which is best suited to give it the most effective ap- 



240 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

pearance. There is one general point that must be noticed, which is that 
in the making of cloth the quality and character of the wool has to be con- 
sidered in reference to the kind of finish wanted. Of course, we can finish 
a cloth in any way we may choose, but if we wish to obtain perfect goods 
this point must be kept in mind. 

For example, the wool suitable for a Scotch cheviot cloth, where little 
fulling is required, would be altogether unsuitable for a kersey or a melton, 
requiring a large amount of fulling. The rule then which regulates this is 
that cloths requiring a large amount of fulling should be made from fine 
wools possessing good felting properties, such as fine Ohio XX, fine Texas, 
Arizona and California wools, and in the foreign wools fine Saxony, Port 
Philip and other Australian wools, fine Natal or Cape, etc. Let us now take 
up briefly the preparatory processes of finishing, giving a brief outline, so 
that the reader who is not initiated into the mill business may obtain some 
idea of these processes. After the cloth is woven, it is passed over a 
"perch" in a strong light, and is carefully examined by an inspector, who 
marks all imperfections of yarns or flaws in weaving. A piece is always 
examined on both sides, first, on the face of the goods, and second, looking 
through the goods toward the window, when all weaving imperfections are 
more easily seen and marked. 

Burling. 

This is really the first process in finishing. The cloth is placed upon a 
table, the top part of which can be raised or tilted to any desired angle, and 
the burlers carefully examine it for knots, slugs, loose ends, etc., by pass- 
ing their hands over the surface of the cloth, and all imperfections are re- 
moved by the use of burling irons. These are sharp-pointed blades, like 
tweezers, and by them the burlers draw out thick threads, knots and other 
imperfections of the yarn. It is very important at this stage that all such de- 
fects be removed, and especially so in broadcloths, kerseys and beavers, or 
other face-finished goods, because if any knots or bunches are left in the 
cloth and fulled in it will be impossible to remove them afterward without 
leaving a small pin hole. 

Some persons may think that the process of napping would cover up 
any knots, but the fact is that the napping and steaming make them show 
up stronger, and at this stage it is impossible to correct imperfect and care- 
less burling. Pieces are always burled twice, the back of the piece being 
done first, all knots being drawn through on the back and cut off, and thick 
and uneven threads taken out or reduced in thickness; that is, by the use 
of the burling iron part of the thick thread is carefully removed and part 
of it is left in the cloth. This may appear difficult, but by practice an ex- 
perienced burler can quickly reduce a heavy thread. After being burled 
twice, first on the back and then on the face, the piece is thrown over a 
perching roll, examined with the cloth toward a well-lighted window, and 
all remaining knots and imperfections are removed. 

Sewing or Mending. 
After the burling the pieces are "mended," that is, all broken threads 
are sewed in and any imperfections in the weave corrected so far as pos- 
sible previous to fulling, for after the goods are fulled it is hardly possible 
to sew in threads or repair imperfections. Such goods as beavers, kerseys, 
meltons and thibets do not require such care in the mending department as 
worsteds and other bare-finished goods, as the felting of the above-mention- 
ed materials serves to cover up slight imperfections in the weave, but even 
in these goods a warp thread broken out for some inches will show dam- 
age, and broken picks should also be sewed in and all floats and imperfec- 
tions of weave repaired. If a pick of filling or a warp thread is left out and 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 241 

needs to be sewed in, the mender will first find out the method in which 
the warp and filling threads interlace with each other, which is done by 
picking out an inch or two of the yarn and noting the filling threads cross- 
ing with the warp yarns. 

This being correctly ascertained, a needle is threaded with the same 
yarn as that of which the cloth is woven, and the thread is sewed into the 
cloth, occupying the place of the broken thread, care being taken that it 
interlaces with the warp yarn in the same order as the other threads. If 
a thread is uneven and heavy, it is necessary to draw it out and introduce 
a thread of the proper size. This is done by fastening a length of the cor- 
rect size of yarn to the uneven or heavy thread, and as it is drawn out of 
the cloth it is constantly replaced by an end of the correct yarn. 

Some cloths are more 

Difficult to Repair 
than others. Worsted cloth made of fancy and complicated weaves and 
patterns is very difficult to repair, and it requires the most expert menders 
to do such work. These cloths are generally handled twice in the mending 
department. The first process is called "mending in the grease," and is, as 
the . name indicates, done previous to scouring. After being scoured, the 
goods are examined by an experienced and skillful mender, who marks all 
imperfections not previously noted and mended, and the pieces are then sent 
to the "clean sewing" perches for the final mending. 

The change which the fulling effects in the appearance and handle of wool- 
en cloths is surprisingly great, and the causes which contribute to these 
results have given rise to many discussions. It is now the generally ac- 
cepted theory that the peculiar felting properties of woolen cloths are due 
primarily to the serratures which form the structure of the fibre. Wool be- 
ing the only fibre which shows this peculiar structure, and the number and 
sharpness of these serrations or scales vary in different classes of wools, 
it is worthy of note that the finest felting wools contain more of these scales 
per inch than wools which are coarser and do not felt so readily. Thus fine 
Saxony wool may contain 2,700 to 3,000 scales per inch, while an inferior 
felting wool may only show 1,000 scales or even less per inch. 

The shrinking or felting nature of woolen goods is due also to the va- 
ried and innumerable ways in which the fibres are mixed, crossed and in- 
terlaced with each other in the yarns. The felting property of wools is also 
hastened by the application of soap and water, as by its action the outer 
ridges or scales of the wool fibre are freed from the natural oil or yolk, their 
serrated edges opened out, causing interlocking of the fibres, and fulling is 
made possible. The heat, which is generated by the fulling process also 
plays an important part. It is the combination of heat, moisture and mild 
alkali which opens the serrated scales of the fibre and knits them together 
into a close and compact mat or felt. 

Years ago the fulling was done entirely by the 

Fulling Stocks, 

which consisted of a trough-shaped bed, capable of holding several pieces of 
cloth, and suspended over this bed were two high hammers or mallets, 
weighing several hundred pounds each, and operated by a sort of trip ham- 
mer mechanism, which raised the mallets alternately, allowing them to drop 
by their own weight on the pieces of cloth lying in the bed of the machine. 
The force of the blow, combined with the sloping bottom of the bed, caused 
the cloth to turn over more or less at each blow of the mallet. Thus the po- 
sition was changed all the time and the cloth received a natural fulling. 
The chief drawbacks to the use of the fulling stocks are the large amount of 
space necessary, the slowness of the fulling and the difficulty in regulating 
them so as to full a piece to a given length and width. 



242 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

The fulling mill or machine has now almost entirely superseded the 
old-time stocks. It is based upon an entirely new principle, and is capable 
of fulling a much larger amount of cloth, and it also requires less space 
and power. A large machine will full from four to eight pieces of cloth at 
one time. The cloth is run into the mill, passing through a dividing or 
guide board over a roller, and through a narrow guide or throat, which de- 
livers it between flanged rollers heavily weighted by springs. These flanged 
rollers force the cloth into what is called the trap. 

This trap has a hinged cover which can be weighted according to the 
requirements of fulling. The fulling is effected by the flanged rollers forcing 
the cloth into the trap, the object of the latter being to hold the cloth back 
and not allow of its being delivered freely. The fulling is accomplished by 
the continual forcing of the cloth into the trap, and the effect is the same 
as the hammer of the fulling stock, but instead of repeated blows of the 
stocks, it is a constant and positive force, driving the cloth forward into 
the trap until it is forced out at the back end, and as the ends of the pieces 
are sewed together the operation is continuous. The piece can be fulled to 
any required width and length by regulating the weight on the cover of the 
trap. This machine is suitable for almost every kind of cloth, and is in- 
dispensable when a large amount of fulling is required, as in meltons, ker- 
seys, etc. 

There is considerable heat generated during the fulling process, and it 
is important to watch the 

Rise in Temperature 

closely, because if the goods get very hot it will tender the stock, and 
also cause the goods to full or shrink too rapidly, thus preventing the pro- 
duction of that close felted face so necessary in face-finished goods. The 
temperature should not be allowed to exceed 80 or 85 degrees, and the re- 
sults will be more satisfactory at a lower temperature, as in most classes of 
goods requiring a heavy felted face the longer time taken to full the goods 
the better felt will be obtained. The process must be continuous, that is, 
the shrinkage must be kept up continuously, slowly and surely, being knit 
together in one compact body, both warp and filling. 

Assuming now that the cloth is well scoured and freed from all soap, 
the next process in the finishing of the fabric we have under consideration 
is the napping. The object in napping is to raise the fibres on the face of 
the goods to such an extent that the surface of the fabric will show one 
continuous covering of a soft, fur-like nap. This process was formerly done 
by hand and was known as "teaseling," the teasels being set in a frame- 
work, and the piece of cloth stretched over bars and kept tight by a ratchet 
and pawl. That process was slow and very unsatisfactory, as compared 
with present-day operations. The teasel gig was the first improvement, and 
it consisted of a large cylinder fitted with 24 slats, closely set with teasels, 
the product of a plant grown in various parts of England, Prance and in 
this country in New York state. 

This cylinder makes about 150 revolutions per minute and revolves in 
a contrary direction to that in which the cloth travels, and it thus gives a 
great power for raising the fibre on the surface of the cloth. The amount 
of contact the cloth has with the teasels can easily be regulated by means 
of movable rollers, which are regulated by pinion and rack gear. These 
are single acting, also double acting gigs, the latter giving four points of 
contact with the cloth as it passes around the cylinder. The wire gig or 
napper is the latest machine for raising the nap on cloth. 

It is constructed with a number of rollers covered with a bronze wire 
clothing very sharp, and so arranged with speed gears that as the cloth 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



243 



passes around the cylinder, these rollers can be so operated that the felted 
surface is quickly napped and opened out if so desired, and by the mere 
change of a speed gear the wire-covered rollers can be made to take vigor- 
ous hold and nap a piece in less than half the time it would take in a teasel 
gig. The usual process is to do the first napping on the wire napper, and 
finish off on the teasels. 

All Face Finished Goods, 

such as kerseys, broadcloths, beavers, doeskins, etc., are napped wet, but 
all other goods which are finished clear are napped dry, which causes the 
fibres to stand erect, ready for the process of shearing, while in the wet 
napping the fibres are laid flat on the surface of the cloth to form a con- 
tinuous nap or pile, which completely hides the weave of the cloth. This 
nap is then cropped by the shear, in order to level the nap, cutting off all 
long fibres and giving the fabric a close, velvet-like nap. 

The object of steaming is to impart a permanent luster to the cloth. 
This was formerly done by boiling the cloth for several hours in a tank of 
water, the cloth having been first tightly wound on a wooden roll, generally 
made of birch wood, as it was free from gum and resin. After the boiling 
it was plunged into a tank of cold water and laid there for several hours. 
Then it was rewound onto another roll, thus reversing the ends, and again 
boiled for several hours, when the cooling off was repeated again in cold 
water. The whole process usually took several days to complete. The 
modern method of steaming was explained in the article on "Broadcloths 
and Kerseys," and the process can be completed in about an hour, which 
shows a vast improvement in processes of manufacturing during the past 
fifty years. After the steaming comes the wet brushing, drying, shearing 
and pressing, as described in previous articles on similar goods. 



LAYOUT. 
4.800 ends; 4 run warp, right twist. 
15 reed, 4 in dent = 80" inside listing + 2" 
for listing = 82" over all. 

FILLING. 
Face 4 V 2 run, left twist, spun soft. 

Back 2 run, left twist, spun soft. 
2 picks face yarn; 1 pick backing. 
60 picks per inch. 

CALCULATIONS. 

4.800 ends, 4 run, warp yarn = 12.00 oz. 

S2" X 60 picks = 4,920 picks. 

3,280 face picks -:- 4V 2 run = 7.30 oz. 

1,640 back picks -h 2 run = 8.20 oz. 

4,920 27.50 oz. 

Take-up = 2.75 oz. 

Loom weight 30.25 oz. 

7% shrinkage in length in finishing = 26 oz. 
finished weight. 

12.00 oz. warp -yarn. 
7.30 oz. face filling. 

19.30 oz. 4- 10% take-up in weaving 

-f 10% waste allowance = 23.58 oz 

8.20 oz. back filling -4- 10% take-up 

•4- 15% waste allowance = 10.60 oz. 



COST. 

Stock for face yarns: 

Fine California carbonized, per lb.= $ .4200 

Stock for backing yarns: 
25% fine California carbonized @ 

42c. per lb = $ .1050 

25% fine mill waste, light shoddy 

@ 24c. per lb = .0600 

50% fine light shoddy @ 22c. per 

lb = .1100 

Cost per lb $ .2750 

23.58 oz. stock for face yarns @ 42c. 

per lb = $ .6190 

10.60 oz. stock for backing yarns © 

27 %c. per lb = .1835 

Plus 7% shrinkage in length = .0561 

$ .8586 
Manufacturing, 60 picks @ $.0070 

+ 7% = .4494 

Mill cost $1.3080 

WEAVING CHAIN. 

aonmunaammna 12 
■■■■■amaaa 11 

■■OHBHOBH m 
■OCDDOMOCinB 9 

luiimnai s 

■□■■■■■Dana 7 

ODIIDDDCnilD 6 
■ ■<!■■'■■■■■ 5 

■■aHHi~«aa ♦ 
■■□aoHnaacD 3 
■■■■ ■■•■■■ . 

■DIIIIIDIIII 1 

BFFBFFBFFBFF 

FRONT. 



244 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



CASSIMERES 



" Light Weight. 12-ounce Finished. 

Cassimeres are a staple woolen fabric, made in various grades for men's 
suitings and in weights for winter and summer wear. They are produced 
in an endless variety of designs in color and woven effects. Cloth is close- 
ly sheared and woven. Full to 52 inches wide and finish the cloth to 54 
inches between twisting. Press very hard to give the cloth a smooth and 
fine look. Spin the yarn to a nice round thread. 




Light-Weight Cas_:tr.ere, 12-ounce. 





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Drawing Draft. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 





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Medium-Weight Cassimere, 14^-ounce. 



WARP 

i medium color. 
1 light color. 



Also made in silk stripes and fancy color over- 
laid. 

8 HARNESS. STRAIGHT DRAW. 
Layout: 

2.880 ends, 44 picks. 

Reed, 10% — 4 — 68, 57" between listing. 
Warp: 

2.880 thr., 5 run 5.86 oz. 

Filling: 

44 picks, 5 run 6.12 oz. 



Allow 2 inches after list 11.98 oz. 

Loom shrinkage, 10% 1.20 " 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 
Fine grade of wool, 56c. lb. 
16: 56 = 3%c. an ounce. 
13.20 4- 15% shrinkage = 15.16 ounce. 



15, 16 ounce @ 3%c. 
Manufacturing : 
44 picks @ 0.86 mills. 



= $ .5306 

= .3784 



Mill cost $ .9090 



Loom weight 13.18 oz. 



246 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



FINE PLAID BACK LADIES' CLOAKING 

Worsted Face, Wool Backing. 

This is a very fine fabric equal to the best imported cloths made from 
2-36s slub-dyed mixture worsted, half-blood quality on -face warp and 2-36s 
white and skein-dyed yarn for back warp. The filling yarns are made from 
fine carbonized wools. The fabric is made in a variety of worsted mix- 
tures and skein-dyed yarns for the face and a number of fancy plaids for 
the back. No fulling is required, but the cloth should be given a thorough 
scouring, running the goods in the soap somewhat longer than usual. Ex- 
tract, gig carefully on back, laying the nap. Dry at 57 inches. Steam and 
brush both face and back, shear, and press medium pressure. Finish at 
55 inches inside listing. Filling yarns — one-half mule draft. 




Fine Plaid Back Ladies' Cloaking. 



Layout: 

2,940 ends 2/36 face warp, slub dyed mix- 
ture, y 2 blood quality. 
2,940 ends 2/36 back warp, white and 
skein dyed, y 2 blood quality. 



5,880 ends. 
120 ends white listing 2/36 worsted. 



6.000 
11/8 reed, 66 4-5" inside listing, plus iy 2 " 
for listing = 68 3-10" over all. 
100 picks. 

4% run filling, right twist. 
Spun soft. 

WARP PATTERN. 
Jl — white worsted 2/36 back. 

5 times j i — grey mixture wstd. 2/36 face. 

Jl — black worsted 2/36 back. 

40 times ^ 1 — grey m i x t ur e wstd. 2/36 face. 

„. . II — blue slate worsted 2/36 back, 

^u times | j — grey m i x t ur e wstd. 2/36 face. 

in t . fl — white worsted 2/36 back, 

tu times j x — grey mixture wstd. 2/36 face. 

K + . „,J 1 — black worsted 2/36 back, 

o times ^ x — grey mixture wstd. 2/36 face. 



Jl — white worsted 2/36 back 

{ 1 — grey mixture wstd. 2/36 face. 

(1 — blue slate worsted 2/36 back. 

\ 1 — grey mixture wstd. 2/36 face. 

51 — black worsted 2/36 back. 

I 1 — grey mixture wstd. 2/36 face. 



420 threads in pattern. 



FILLING PATTERN. 

4 y 2 run, right twist. 

4V2 run. right twist. 

4V 2 run, right twist. 

4 y 2 run, right twist. 

4y 2 run, right twist. 

4% run, right twist. 

4y 2 run, right twist. 

4 y 2 run, right twist. 

4 V 2 run, right twist. 

4% run, right twist. 

4% run, right twist. 

4y 2 run, right twist. 

4V 2 run, right twist. 



_ :.. S 1 — white 

5 times } i_ D ia,ck 

80 — black 

( 1 — blue slate 
20 times | 1 _ black 

i0 times {1=ZS£S£ 

10 — black 

f 1 — white 
40 times ^ !_ black 

20 times J J— k} ue , slate 
} 1 — black 
80 — black 

420 picks to pattern 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



24? 



Pace mixture is: 

40% white fine worsted tops. 
60% black slub dyed tops. 

Weaving chain: 

Straight draw on 20 harness. 

lllll ■■■■IRIBl llll 

■ ■■DDnDDDDBDBDDDDDDQGl9 

■■■■■■■■■auiiiNiiaa>$ 

DDBDBDaaDnLIDBBBDnaDnD" 
BBBaBBBBBBBBBGBBBBBaDl') 

DDDDBBBDDDnQDDBDBDaaD15 

iiiiiii:]iiiiii»id>iqh 

□ _QJDDBCBnODaGaDBBBnD13 
BaBBBaBBBBBrBBBBaaBBail 

anDaanaaBBBaai QQaaaacn 

■ ■■■■ iniiaHiiiii i' 

BBBnnnanQaBaaQ_oc]i_n_i 9 
BaBBBBaaajBaaaBBBaa'D * 
nnBaBDnDnanaBBBDnQDDn ^ 

BBBGBBBBBBBBB IIIIQIU 
nDDaBBBDDDDDDDBnBDDDn » 
■■■MMBB «■■■■■■■■ ■■ I 

L D-DDDBaBaDDnDDaBBBDa 3 

BGBBaaaaaaaaBBBBBBBBa - 
BQnaaaaaBBBaaqQQnoanD i 

FRONT. 

COST CALCULATION. 
2,940 ends 2/36s worsted 

mixture 4.66 oz. 

Plus 10% take-up 46 oz. 

2.940 ends 2/36s skein 

dyed 4.66 oz. 

Plus 10% take-up 46 oz. 



120 ends 2/36 listing 19 oz. 

Plus 10% take-up 02 oz. 

.21 oz. 

Filling: 

68%" X 100 picks = 6,830. 

6,830 -h 4% runs .15.18 oz. 

Plus 10% take-up 1.51 oz. 

16.69 oz. 

Loom weight 27.14 oz. 

Finished weight, 21% to 22 oz. 

5.12 oz. 2/36 worsted mixture + 
2% waste allowance = 5.22 oz. 
@ $1.15 per lb = $ .3752 

5.12 oz. 2/36 worsted skein dyed 
+ 6% waste allowance = 5.45 
oz. @ $1.00 per lb = .3406 

.21 oz. 2/36 worsted listing + 2% 
waste allowance = .23 oz. @ 
$1.00 per lb = .0014 

Filling: 

16.69 oz. 4% run filling + 10% 
waste allowance = 18.54 oz. @ 
60c = .6952 

Cost of material $1.4124 

Manufacturing charges 7000 

Mill cost $2.1124 



UNIFORM FABRICS-CADET GREYS 

These fabrics are made usually in 14-ounce, 15-ounce, 16-ounce, 18- 
ounce, 21-ounce and 24-ounce cloths. The construction and cost calculations 
of the first four of these weights are given below. The cloth is used for uni- 
forms for post offices, military and high schools, etc. It must be made from 
a strong good feeling wool, as it is required to pass a high test for strength 
and wearing qualities, hence care must be taken in selecting the stock and 
blending it to insure a thorough mixing and freedom from specks when 
carded. 

The blue wool in the mixture must be indigo-dyed. Goods to be fulled 
with a good heavy-bodied soap to insure felting. Full to 56 inches inside 
listing. Scour, dry to 57 inches, shear face, steam and brush well and press 
heavy. Fulled in length to hold 14 per cent shrinkage when finished. All 
yarns are spun fully half draft, say, five-eighths draft. 



Layout: 

2,88 3 ends liy 2 /3 in dent, 83%" insiae 
listing, plus 1" for listing = 84%" over 
all. 

White yarn, 4 run. 

40 picks. 

6 harness. Listing, extra harnesses. 



14 Oz. CADET GREY UNIFORM CLOTH 

STRAIGHT DRAW. 

DBBDBI 

BBDBBC 
□■ 



□ I 

BBUBBU 
BDBBOB 
■ ■_■■ 
■ B ■■ 
BDBBna 



na 




i a 


H 


BU 

■n 


2 

O 


! IB 


1 IB 


pi 


B! 


It, 


■ 1 1 




I IB 




UB 





to 



248 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Warp: 

2,880 ends 4% run, left twist 6.59 oz. 

Plus 8% loom take-up 53 oz. 

Filling: 

40 picks X 84%" = 3,380. 

3,380 4% run filling, right twist.. 7.51 oz. 

Plus 8% loom take-up 60 oz. 

Loom weight 15.23 oz. 

Finished weight 14 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Warp and filling yarns spun from same 

stock mixture. 
50% fine A. A. pulled white @ 

63c = $ .3100 

50% fine Texas Vi mo. (indigo 

dyed, med. blue shade) @ 

63c = .3150 

16) $ .6250 
An ounce $ .0390 



Material: 

15.23 oz. + 10% loom waste allowance 

= 16.92 oz. 
Plus 14% shrinkage in length at fulling 

= 19.67 oz., stock required per finished 

yard. 
19.67 oz. @ $.0390 per oz = $ .7680 

Manufacturing: 

40 picks @ $.0900 = $ .3600. 

Plus 14% = $ .«186 

Mill cost $1.1866 

It is possible to cut down this labor cost 
by having spinners run 2 mules and weav- 
ers run 2 looms each. 



15 Oz. CADET GREY 

Layout: 

3,000 ends, 12/3 reed; 83%" inside listing, 

plus 1" for listing = 84%" over all. 
White 4 run yarn. 
42 picks. 
Same yarns and weave as 14-oz. cloth. 

Warp: 

3,000 ends 4% run warp, left 

twist 6.86 oz. 

Plus 8% loom take-up 55 oz. 

Filling: 

42 picks X 84%" = 3,542. 
3,542 h- 4% run filling, right 

twist 7.S6 oz. 

Plus 8% loom take-up 63 oz. 

Loom weight 15.90 oz. 

Finished weight, 15 oz. 



UNIFORM CLOTH. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Stock: 

Same blend as the 14-oz. cloth @ $.0390 
per oz. 

Material: 

15.90 oz. + 10% loom waste allowance 

= 17.66 oz. 
Plus 16% shrinkage in length at fulling 

= 21 oz. stock required per finished 

yard. 
21 oz. stock @ $.0390 per oz. . . = $ .8190 

Manufacturing: 

42 picks @ $.0890 = $.3696. 

Plus 16% shiinkage = .4400 



Mill cost $1.2590 

This labor cost can be cut down by spinners 
running 2 mules and weavers running 2 
looms each. 



16 Oz. CADET GREY UNIFORM CLOTH. 



Layout: 

3,000 ends 12/3 reed, 83%" inside listing, 

+ 1" for listing = 84%" over all. 

White yarn 3 % run. 

44 picks. 

Same weave as 14-oz. fabric. 



Warp: 

3,000 ends 4 run, left . 'ist 7.50 oz. 

Plus 8% loom take-u 60 oz. 

44 picks X 84%" = 3, ,10. 

3,710 -t- 4% run filling, right twist 8.24 oz. 

Plus 8% loom take-up 66 oz. 



Loom weight 17.00 oz. 



Finished weight, 16 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Stock: 

Same blend as the 14-oz. cloth = 
$.0390 per oz. 

17 oz. -)- 10% loom waste allowance 
= 19 oz. 

19 oz. + 16% shrinkage in length in full- 
ing = 22.62 oz. stock required per fin- 
ished yard. 

22.62 oz. stock @ $.0390 = $ .8821 

Manufacturing : 

44 picks @ $.0860 = $.3784. 

Plus 16% shrinkage = .4500 



Mill cost $1.3321 

This labor cost can be cut down by spinners 
running 2 mules and weavers running 2 
looms each. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



249 



Layout: 

3,000 ends warp, 12/3 reed, 83V 3 " inside 

listing, plus 1" for listing = 84 %" over 

all. 
White 3% run yarn. 
40 picks. 



Weave: 
8 harness. 
2 harness extra for listing. 

STRAIGHT DRAW. 

■■■ ■■■ 

ID! 



18 Oz. CADET GREY UNEFORM CLOTH. 

Filling: 

40 picks X 83%" = 3,374. 

3,374 -h 3% run right twist 10.38 oz. 

Plus 8% take-up 80 oz. 

Loom weight 19.43 oz. 

Finished weight, 18 oz. 



■■■OHIO 

bgbbbobb 

DIHDIII 

bbobbbdb 

bbbzbbbz 



ID 



Warp: 

3,000 ends, 4 run warp, left twist. 7.50 dz. 
Plus 10% loom take-up 75 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 
Stock: 

Same blend as the 14-oz. cloth = $.039 

per oz. 
19.43 oz. loom weight, plus 10% waste 

allowance = 21.59 oz. 
21.59 oz. + 16% shrinkage in length at 
fulling = 25.70 oz. 

Manufacturing : 

25.70 oz. @ $.0390 per oz = $1.0000 

40 picks @ $.0900 = $.3600. 

Plus 16% shrinkage = .4285 

Mill cost $1.4285 



Both the 21-ounce and 24-ounce fabrics analyzed below are usually 
given a light run on the gig, using old or dull teasels, just enough gigging 
to straighten out the fibres of wool on face. Dry, shear close, steam brush 
and press hard. 

21 Oz. CADET GREY UNIFORM CLOTH. 



Layout: 

4,400 ends, 13%/4 reed, 81%" inside list- 
ing, plus 1%" for listing = 83" over all. 
White 3 % run yarn. 
50 picks. 

Weave: 

12 harnesses. 

2 harnesses extra for listing. 

STRAIGHT DRAW. 



Filling: 

50 picks X 83" = 4,150. 

4,150 -h 4% run, right twist 9.22 oz. 



Plus 10% loom take-up. 



.92 oz. 



Loom weight 22.24 oz. 

Finished weight 21.00 oz. 



COST CALCULATION. 



nQBBflQnDBBBO 
BBBlXJQBBBUCjD 
BUDUBBBDUZBB 
DDBBBDOaBBBD 
BBBDDDBBBUDD 
■DDDBBBDDDBB 
QDBBBDDDBBBD 
BBBQDQBBBZUD 
BCIOOBBBQODBB 
□OBBBDQOBBBO 
BBBDDDBBBaGC 
BDDZBBBZnQBB 



Warp: 

4,400 ends, 4 run, left twist 11.00 oz. 

Plus 10% loom take-up 1.10 oz. 



Same blend as the 14-oz. fabric @ $.0390 

per oz. 

22.24 oz., loom weight, plus 10% waste 

allowance = 24.66 oz. 
24.66 oz. -(- 16% shrinkage at fulling 

= 29.35 oz. 



Manufacturing : 

29.35 oz. @ $.0390 

50 picks @ $.0800 + 16% 



= $1.1446 
= .4760 



Mill cost $1.6206 



24 Oz. CADET GREY UNIFORM CLOTH. 

Layout: DDBBBDBDDDBBBDBD 

4,800 ends 14%/4 reed, 82%" inside list- ■BBDBnDDBBBDBDnD 

ing, plus 1%" for listing = 8414" over BCDDBBBOBDnaBBBD 

all QUBBBrjBnnOBBBOBD jl, 

SiT --iiti ™v,i+o v=rr, BaBDnOBBB-BDaDBB E. 

3% .un white yarn. BBBDBnDDBBBGBnDD g 

56 picks. MD QBBBZBDnuBBBZ O 

GDBBBZBZZQBBBnBZ £ 
~IDBDDDBBBDBDDDBB ^ 



Weave: 

12 harnesses as in 21-oz. cloth; 

Or 16 harnesses straight draw, as below. 



_ _ JDBDnDBBBDBnDD 

BZZZBBBZBZZZBBBZ 
DDBBBDBOODBBBDBD 

BDBaDnBBBDBnDZBB 

BBBZBZZZBBB ^BZZZ 
■ZZZBBBZBGZZBBBZ 



Warp: 

4,800 ends 4 run warp, left twist. .12.00 oz. 
Plus 10% loom take-up 1.20 oz- 



250 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Filling: 

56 picks X 84%" = 4.718. 

4,718 -h 4y 2 run right twist flllingll.80 oz. 

Plus 8% take-up = .95 oz. 

Loom weight 25.95 oz. 

Finished weight, 24 oz. 

I 
COST CALCULATION. 

$.0390 per 



Stock: 

Same blend as 14-oz. fabric 



25.95 oz. loom weight, + 10% waste al- 
lowance = 28.3 oz. 

28.3 oz. + 16% shrinkage in fulling = 
33% oz. stock required per finished yard. 



Manufacturing: 

33y 3 oz. @ $.0390 per oz = $1.2998 

56 picks @ $.0740 = $.4144. 

Plus 16% shrinkage = .4933 

Mill cost $1.7931 



oz. 



REGATTA STRIPE LADIES' SUITING 

This cloth is woven on a double plain weave, the warp threads being 
a thread face and a thread back, while the filling threads show both on 
face and back, the white pick weaving on the face as it interlaces with 
the white warp threads, then goes on to the back where it interlaces with the 
grey threads. The grey filling thread works the opposite of the white thread. 
The stock used is a fine wool and carbonized white noil, free from nubs, 
and carded worsted yarn waste. Cards must be in good condition and 
great care must be taken to see that the grey stock is carded free from 
specks. Very little fulling is required. Extract, dry at 57 inches and 
press light. 




10|/2-Ounce Regatta Stripe Ladies' Suiting. 



Layout: 



1,760 ends 

12y 2 /2 reed. 

70" inside listing plus 1" for listing = 7 

over all. 
Draw straight on 8 harness. 
Listing on extra harness or side straps. 
30 picks. 

WEAVE. 



Grey. 



DBCDQBCD & 



uiama 

■DDDHDDD 



* White. 






Warp: 

3 % run yarn, right twist. 

Filling: 

3 % run yarn, right twist. 

WARP PATTERN. 
4 — White, 3% run. 
4 — Light grey, 3% run. 
4 — White, 3% run. 
2 — Light grey, 3% run. 
2 — Blue fancy, 5 run. 
4 — White, 3y 2 run. 
4 — Light grey, 3% run. 
4 — White, 3% run. 
2 — Light grey, 3% run. 
2 — Black and white 2/40s cotton. 

32 threads = 11 patts. ; 5 sections. 



FRONT. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



251 



FILLING PATTERN. 

;-- Light grey, 3% run. 
L— \Vhite, 3% run. 

COST CALCULATIONS. 
Warp: 

880 ends white warp, 3% run = 

2.51 oz. -4- 10% loom take-up = 2.76 oz. 

660 ends light grey warp, 3% run 
= 1.88 oz. + 10% loom take- 
up = 2.06 oz. 

110 ends blue fancy, 5 run = 

0.22 oz. -)- 10% loom take-up = 0.24 oz. 

110 ends black and white 2/40s 
cotton = 0.11 oz. -4- 10% loom 
take-up 0.12 oz. 

Filling. 

71" X 30 picks = 2,130. 

1,065 picks white 3% run = 2.84 

oz. + 10% loom take-up.... = 3.12 oz. 
1,065 picks light grey 3% run = 

2.84 oz. -4- 10% loom take-up = 3.12 oz. 

Loom weight . . ., 11.42 oz. 

Finished weight, 10.50 oz. 

Stock for white yarns: 

70% white noil @ 42c = $ .2940 

30% white fine wool @ 55c = .1650 

Cost per pound $ .4590 



.2200 
.1260 



Stock for light grey yarns: 

40% white wool @ 55c = $ 

30% white noil @ "42c = 

30% fine black carded worsted 
waste @ 30c = 

Cost per pound $ 



2.76 oz. white warp. 
3.12 oz. white filling. 

5.88 oz. + 6% waste allowance = 

6.26 oz. @ $.4590 per lb. = $ .1795 
2.06 oz. light grey warp. 
3.12 oz. light grey- filling. 

5.18 oz. + 6% waste allowance = 

5.52 oz. @ $.4360 per lb. = .1504 

0.24 oz. blue fancy + 6% waste al- 
lowance = 0.25 oz. @ $.6000 

per lb = .0094 

2/40s twist cotton, black and 
white = 0.12 oz. @ $.4000 
per lb = .0030 

$ .3423 

Manufacturing cost: 

30 picks at lc : 3000 

Mill cost $ .6423 



PLAID BACK HOMESPUN CLOAKING 

This fabric is woven with plain weave face and four-harness twill 
back with 1 thread heavy homespun nub yarn on face and 2 threads fine yarn 
on back. The face yarns are made from coarse imported wools, while the 







* • , * * P u * V *■ * f ' '■ * A ' 


:::••;- . Vk\;^v 


>™".1^v%- ■■■IvI - 


■. . : 




lip .I'lv 


*. : '4J*l -%-s. Sl-^ ^ ■" 




v v U. ^w% *tS» ^^ 


8r - hh 


■ ^ •'Safe -i%t 

\ t*H felt-In 





22-Ounce Plaid Back Homespun Cloaking. 

backing yarns are made from fine medium domestic wool, with a mixture 
of fine light shoddy for dyeing. Face yarn is spun heavy and rough card- 
ed, with a good percentage of large nubs. In spinning tbis homespun yarn 
a good long draft is required, say three-fourths draft, and medium twist, 



252 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



with just enough to ensure good weaving. The filling is spun soft. Backing 
yarn should be a good level thread free from twists and bunches, draft to 
be five-eighths of mule. Full very slightly, but give a good scouring, run- 
ning the goods a little extra in the soap. Rinse well, extract and dry at 
58 inches. Shear back and give medium pressure. Finish at 54 to 55 
inches inside. 



Layout: 

1,280 ends 3 run back warp. 

640 ends 1 run face warp. 

320 ends 2/40s cotton binder. 



2,240 ends. 

Ill 

Reed 7 = 68%" inside listing. 

5 4 5 

lVi" listing. 

70" over all. 
Weave: 

Draw straight on 14 harness. 



Light 
White 
Light 
Drab 
Light 
White 
Light 
White 
Light 
Drab 
Light 
White 
Light 
threads 



tan, 
nub 
tan, 
cotto 
tan, 
nub 
tan, 
nub 
tan, 
cotto 
tan, 
nub 
tan, 



3 run. 
yarn, 1 
3 run. 
a, 2/40. 
3 run. 
yarn, 1 
3 run. 
yarn, 1 
3 run. 
a, 2/40. 
3 run. 
yarn, 1 
3 run. 



in pattern. 



DIDIUDIDIII H 

□DoaacnnoDBa w 
^bbbbcjhbbbb:: i- 
ammamaam nan u 
■■tniniHiiij i" 
□■anQonBDQna 9 
■■ jnmmmmaamm s 
qbgbbb_iBOBbb i 
onaamnannnun s 
r ammMmaamumma * 

□■DDDDDBBCBa * 

< BBBJBDBBBDBn 3 

DBDanDDBDDQD 2 

1 II.3IHB 'LJBB 1 



2/40s cotton binder. 



2/40s cotton binder. 



FILLING PATTERN. 
Olive green, 3 run. 
Medium brown nub yarn, 1 run. 
Olive green, 3 run. 
Light tan, 3 run. 
Med. brown nub yarn, 1 run. 
Light tan, 3 run. 
threads in pattern. 



1. 
1. 
1. 
1. 
\ 1. 

Li- 

4S 
36 picks per inch. 



FRONT. 
This chain is made to weave face down. 

Stock for face warp: 

15% large white nub @ 50c $ .0750 

20% white med. wool @ 44c 0880 

65% white Kandahar @ 32c 2080 

Cost per pound $ .3710 

Stock for backing: 

50% fine med. wool @ 56c $ .2800 

50% fine shoddy @ 24c 1200 

Light shades lor coloring. 

Cost per pound $ .4000 

Stock for face filling: 

15% nubs @ 50c $ .0750 

20% med. wool @ 44c 0S80 

20% E. India wool @ 25c 0500 

45% coarse shoddy @ 15c 0675 

Cost per pound $ .2805 

2/40s dyed cotton yarn @ 48c. per pound. 



WARP PATTERN. 

1. Olive green, 3 run. 

1. White nub yarn, 1 run. 

1. Olive green, 3 run. 

1. Drab cotton yarn, 2/40. 

1. Olive green, 3 run. 

1. White nub yarn, 1 run. 

2. Olive green, 3 run. 

1. White nub yarn, 1 run. 

1. Olive green, 3 run. 

1. Drab cotton, 2/40. 

1. Olive green, 3 run. 

1. White nub yarn, 1 run. 

1. Olive green, 3 run. 



COST CALCULATIONS. 
Warp: 

1,280 ends, 3 run = 4.27 oz., plus 

10% take-up = 4.70 oz. 

640 ends, 1 run = 6.40 oz., plus 

10% take-up .= 7.04 oz. 

320 ends 2/40s = 0.32 oz., plus 

10% take-up = 0.35 oz. 

Filling: 

70" X 36 picks = 2,520. 

1,680 threads, 3 run = 5.60 oz., 

plus 10% take-up = 6.16 oz. 

S40 threads, 1 run = 8.40 oz., 

plus 10% take-up = 9.24 oz. 

Loom weight 27.49 oz. 

Finished weight, 22 oz. 

7.04 oz. face warp plus 15% waste 
allowance = 8.28 oz. @ 
$.3710 per lb = $ .1920 

■9.24 oz. face filling plus 20% waste 
allowance = 11.55 oz. @ 
$.2800 per lb = .2021 

4.70 oz. back warp. 
6.16 oz. back filling. 

10.86 oz. plus 15% waste allowance 
= 12.77 oz. @ $.4000 per 

lb = .3192 

.035 oz. 2/40s drab cotton binder 

@ $.3500 @ $.4800 per lb..= .0105 

Cost of stock $ .7238 

Manufacturing: 

36 picks @ $.0094 3384 

Mill cost $1.0622 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 253 



MACKINAW FABRICS 



For many years this fabric was practically monopolized by the lumber 
men and hunters in the Michigan woods, and recently became much in 
vogue with college men and others who are fond of out-door life, for which 
it is especially adapted. It is also used for winter sports when put 
through a waterproofing process. It is made in various weights from 22 to 
"2 ounces and upward, and in a great variety of fancy plaids in grey tones, 
also in fancy colors in strong contrasting shades and striking patterns. 
The fabric here illustrated is a 22-ounce cloth, and woven so as to feel 
thick and heavy, giving warmth without excessive weight. A low grade of 
mackinaws is also made with a cotton warp and all-shoddy or card waste 
fillings. 

In spinning yarns for these fabrics it is necessary to have at least 
i-draft. Warp yarns are spun with just twist enough to ensure good weav- 
ing, and filling yarns are given a medium twist. Full to 56 inches inside 
listing, so as to hold loom length when finished. Scour, extract, nap both 
back and face, dry at 57 inches, brush and press with medium pressure. 

Waterproofing Process. 
If it is desired to waterproof this cloth, make up a soap solution in 
the proportion of 2J ounces of good tallow soap in 5 gallons of water. A 
second solution of 3 ounces of alum in 5 gallons of water is also made up. 
Run the goods in the washer (after being scoured and rinsed off, and pre- 
vious to the napping) in the soap solution until thoroughly saturated. 
Drain off the excess liquor, add the alum solution, and run goods as before un- 
til saturated, then drain off again, but do not rinse. Extract the same as 
regular goods. The alum solution precipitates the soap in the goods into 
an insoluble aluminate soap, and makes an excellent water repellent. 




22-Ounce Mackinaw. 

La o y ^n : a Filling yarn: 

d a ? n / /'. !% run ' ri S ht twist- 

Reed 7%/4. 30 picks. 

66 2-3" inside listing. »*-*». 

11-3" for listing. DDDBBB 6 
DDDHI 5 

68" over all. bSSSS^ 1 

Draw straight on 6 harness. BBUDDB 2 

Warp yarn: ■■□DDB i 

l^s run, right twist. FRONT. 



254 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



WARP PATTERN. 
12 — Black. 
18 — Light grey mixture. 

2 — Black. 

6 — Light grey mixture. 

S — Black. 

8 — Light grey mixture. 

8 — Black. 

6 — Light grey mixture. 

2 — Black. 
18 — Light grey mixture. 
12 — Black. 

100 ends; 4 patterns; 5 sections. 

FILLING PATTERN. 
22— Black. 
20 — Light grey mixture. 

2— Black. 

4 — Light grey mixture. 

6 — Black. 

4 — Light grey mixture. 

6 — Black. 

4 — Light grey mixture. 

2 — Black. 
20 — Light grey mixture. 

90 

STOCK BLEND, WARP AND FILLING. 
Black: 

50% coarse wool, black @ 36c... $ .1800 
50% coarse shoddy, black @ 15c. .0750 

Cost per pound $ .2550 

Light grey mixture: 

30% coarse wool, white @ 40c $ .1200 

35% coarse shoddy, white @ 25c. .0875 

35% coarse shoddy, black @ 15c. .0525 

Cost per pound $ .2600 



COST CALCULATIONS. 
2,000 ends warp 1V 2 run = 13.33 

oz. + 10% loom take-up. ...= 14.66 oz. 
Filling: 

68" X 30 picks = 2,040. 

2,040 filling, iy 2 run = 1,360 oz. 

+ 10% loom take-up = 14.96 oz. 

Loom weight 29.62 oz. 

Finished weight, 22 oz. 

Warp: 

880 ends black = 5.86 oz. + 10% 

loom take-up + 15% waste.. = 7.57 oz. 

1,120 threads light grey mixture 
= 7.46 oz. -f- 10% loom take-up 
+ 15% waste = 9.66 oz. 

Filling: 

860 ends black = 5.74 oz. + 10% 

loom take-up + 15% waste.. = 7.42 oz. 
1,180 ends light grey mixture = 
7.S6 oz. + 10% loom take-up + 

15 % waste = 10.16 oz. 

7.57 oz. black warp. 
7.42 oz. black filling. 

14.99 oz. @ $.2550 per lb = $ .2389 

9.66 oz. light gray warp. 
10.16 oz. light gray filling. 

19.82 oz. @ 26c. per lb = $ .3220 

$ .5609 

Manufacturing cost: 

30 picks @ lc ..= $ .3000 

Mill cost $.8609 



LADIES' SUITING 

12-Ounce Nub, Napped Finish. 
These goods are made from Joria and Khorassan imported wools, 
with a percentage of good shoddy or mill waste. They are made in a 
large variety of colorings and designs, such as 1 x 1 hair line, 3x1 
hair line, as in illustration, and 2x2 Regatta stripe, and in various 
broken stripes. These stripe patterns, made with the coarse rough yarns 
and finish, are very popular in England at present. The large "nubs" or 
rather "slugs" in this cloth enhanc e its appearance and value. The pickg 
per inch being low, it is possible for a mill to get off a very large pro* 
duction. The nubs or slugs are made from a fine medium wool, and 
as large as possible on nubbing card, so when mixed with the batch, 
and going through the carding operation, the large slugs are caught by 
the workers and drawn out in length. These slugs have to be felted or 
fulled a little before being added to the batch in the picker room. Yarna 
are spun a good fair twist, both for warp and filling, and about 2-3-draft 
is required. Full to 56 inches, inside listing, and hold loom length when 
finished. Nap slightly after extracting, dry at 57 inches, brush and press 
medium pressure. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



255 



Layout: 
1,116 ends. 

Warp: 

1 % run, right twist. 

Filling: 

1% run, right twist. 
20 picks. 

Reed — 8.2 in dent = 69%" inside listing. 
1 " listing. 

70%" over all. 



Straight draw on 6 harness. 
2 listing. 



□■■DM 6 

■■ouo t> 

■DHOB i 

LIUDH 3 

■ ■DUD 2 

■DIIDI 1 



ft PQ 3 £ K 3 

FRONT. 



"Warp pattern: 
2 black 1% yarn. 
1 white nub yarn. 

Filling Pattern: 

1 white nub yarn. 

2 black nub yarn. 




12-Ounce Dress Goods Suiting, 3x1 Hair Line. 



STOCK BLEND WARP AND FILLING. 

Black — 35% East India or Khoras- 

san 30c = $ .1050 

65% Black serge shoddy 

12c = .0780 

Cost per lb $ .1830 

White — 15% Large white nubs @ 

60c = $ .0900 

35% White Joria wove @ 

40c = .1400 

50% White coarse shoddy 

@ 30c = .1500 

Cost per lb % .380* 

COST CALCULATION. 
1,116 ends wp., 1% run = 6.37 

oz. -f 10% loom take-up = 7.00 oz. 

70%" X 20 picks = 1,414. 

14.14 -i-1% run =» 8.08 oz. + 10% 



loom take-up = 8.88 

Loom weight 15.88 oz. 

Finished weight 12 oz. 

4.66 oz. black warp yarn. 
5.92 oz. black filling yarn. 

10.58 oz. -f- 15% waste allowance 

= 12.4 oz. @ 18.3c. per lb = $ .1418 

2.33 oz. white nub warp. 
2.96 oz. white nub filling. 

5.29 oz. + 15% waste allowance 

= 6.2 oz. @ 38c. per lb = .1472 

$ .2890 

Manufacturing cost: 

20 picks @ 1.10c ; = % .2200 

Mill cost $ .5090 



256 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

Dress Goods Suiting, With Broken Stripe Effect. 

Here is another illustration of same fabric and yarns but in one of 
the broken stripe effects. This style will cost a trifle more for stock, as 
there is a larger percentage of white yarns in the pattern. 




12-Ounce Dress Goods Suiting With B roken Stripe Effect. 

Layout: COST CALCULATIONS. 

1,116 ends, 1% run warp and filling. ' 

8 reed, 2 in dent 69%" wide. 3.50 oz. back warp. 

1" listing. 4.44 oz. black filling. 

a ii 7.94 oz. -4- 15% waste allowance = 

9.3 oz. @ 18.3c. per lb = $ .1063 

3.50 oz. white nub warp. 
4.44 oz. white nub filling. 

li 7.94 oz. + 15% waste allowance = 
1° 9.3 oz. @ 38c- per lb = .2209 

7 8 $ .3272 

6 Manufacturing cost: 

i 20 picks @ 1.10c = $ .2200 

3 

, \ Mill cost $ .5472 





70%" over 




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FRONT. 



ASTRACHAN CLOAKING 

26i/ 2 Ounce, Fancy Weave. 

The illustrations accompanying this layout and calculations are photo- 
graphic reproductions of the raw cloth (unfinished) which shows both the 
face and the back of the cloth to give a better understanding of how the 
weave in combination with the yarns are interwoven to give the wave 
twill effect. You will observe the small straight twill on face is gradually 
enlarged to a broad twill, showing loops of the lustre worsted yarn, which 
will, on being fulled, curl up in loops or bunches. This cloth must be made 
with comparatively few ends and set open in the reed, which gives the 
lustre yarn a chance to curl in the process of fulling. The small straight twill 
is formed by the finer warp yarn being set close in the reed, while the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



257 



coarser warp yarns are set open, which makes the twill large and wide. 
The construction is quite ingenious, and a novelty in cloth fabrication. The- 
same care must be used in the finishing of this fabric as in the Rating 
cloaking, and although this cloth construction is not so liable to have mill 
wrinkles, the filling must be watched closely to prevent any such possibil- 
ity. Full to 56 inches; scour, extract; piece dye to shade; dry to 57 inches; 
brush and shear off any coarse hairs on back, no pressing being required. 
Goods are finished loom length. 



Layoilt: 

1,800 ends warp 

Dressed: 

20 ends, 2 run, left twist. Medium. 

16 " 4 " " " Hard. — Must be 
strong yarn. 

36 ends, 10 patterns, 5 sections. 
1,000 ends, 2 run, wp. left. 
800 " 4 



1111111 
Reed 5, 70 inches. 

4 4 4 4 4 8 8 

Filling pattern: 

1 pick, 3s lustre worsted, soft spun left. 

2 picks, 2 run, woolen, soft spun left. 
48 picks. 

Draw straight on 12 harness. 







Face. 




Back 3 



258 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



WEAVE CHAIN. 

■ ■■DDBBIJUaLlBU«nB«;.MDDBa JBBI !KJL:«nCi«Bi J 12 

■■D«MDnMaoDnBDBQMCManHnuMn«aQBDU n 

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BDQBDOBBaBBBnaBBaDaaBDBQBBDBn BDDBfcD 9 

BBDBGnBL:nBBDBBBnnBBDDDDBaBD*BaBDnBD^ 8 

BDDBBDBDDBnDBBDBBBDnBBaaDDBDB BBDBDD • 

BOOB .□BBDBaDBDDBBDBBBDDBBDDOCBLBQ^BU ? 
SB 'H DBU '■■_■. ■ i ■■ .■■■ ■■ ■ 0_B ■ 

nBaBBilBaCWDnBaUBUDBaUBBUBBBUUBBIiUuI IB '> 

DDBDBGBBnBaDBGaBBDBCaBDuBBaBBBUnBB^G :i 

BDDaOBaBDBB^BDaBDDBBDBaDBDDBBaBBBDaB - 

DaBBaaaaBDBDBBDBDaBDaBBUBnDBDJBaDBBB 1 



Warp calculations: 

1,000 ends, 2 run = 5.00 oz. 

+ 10% loom take-up = 5.50 oz. 

800 ends, 4 run = 2.00 oz. 
+ 10% loom take-up = 2.20 oz. 

Filling: 

70 inches X 48 picks = 3,360. 

1,120 Threads 3s lustre = 10.66 

oz. + 10% loom take-up.. = 11.72 oz. 

2,240 Threads, 2 run wool = 
11.20 oz. + 10% loom take- 
up = 12.32 oz. 

Loom weight 31.74 oz. 

Finished weight 26 % oz. 

Stock: 

Blend for 2-run yarns. 

40% Fine medium wool @ 56c. = $ .2240 

60% Fine shoddy @ 18c = .1080 

Cost per lb $ .3320 



Stock: 

Blend for 4-run yarn. 

70% Fine medium wool @ 56c. = $ .3920 

30% Fine shoddy @ 18c = .0540 

Cost per lb $ .4460 

3s Lustre Worsted Yarn, made from im- 
ported English Lincoln wool, 70c. 

COST CALCULATIONS. 
Warp: 

5.50 oz. 2-run yarn + 15% 
waste allowance = 6.47 oz. 

@ 33.20c. per lb = $ .1342 

2.20 oz. 4-run yarn + 10%- 
waste allowance = 2.44 oz. 
@ 44.60c. per lb = .0680 

Filling: 

12.32 oz. 2-run yarn + 15% 

waste allowance = 14.50 oz. 

@ 32.20c. per lb = $ .2980 

11.72 oz. 3s worsted + 5% 

waste allowance = 12.32 oz. 

@ 70c. per lb = .5390 

$1.0392 
Manufacturing costs: 

48 picks @ .82c = $ .3936 

Less cost of manufacturing 

12.32 oz. of yarn = .0300 

.3636 

Mill cost $1.4028 



COTTON WARP ASTRACHAN CLOAKING 

The most expensive astrachans are woven on a wire loom, which is sim- 
ilar to a carpet loom. Two warp beams are required, (1) for the lustre 
loop yarn and (1) for the body warp, which is usually cotton yarn. The 
loop or curl yarn is looped on the face of the cloth, being stitched into 
the body fabric about every half inch. The cheapest astrachan cloth made 
is what is known as the knitted astrachan. It is made usually with an 
all-cotton yarn ground with the lustre yarn looped on the face. This 
makes quite an attractive fabric to any who are not experienced in hand- 
ling such goods, but it does not make up so satisfactorily into garments as 
the woven fabric. The knit fabric is sleazy and will not keep its shape 
when made up. It is also open in construction, light in weight, and lack- 
ing in warmth. The fabric here analyzed is the woven astrachan, made 
on a regular broad woolen loom, the ground weave being the regular 3- 
harness twill, 2 up and 1 down, throwing the woolen filling to the back of 
the cloth, while the lustre loop yarn is thrown to the face in a succession 
of loops. 

The ground pick floats over 1 thread and under 2 threads, while 
thf, lustre yarn floats over 11 ground threads, and binding with seven 
other ground threads, every alternate loop covering the place where the 
previous pick of loop yarn was bound. The ground filling yarn is spun 
he ivy with a medium soft twist to right, and a long draft is necessary, 
ab.mt % to %, it depending a good deal on the stock used. The lustre 
yarn thread, No. 3s worsted, is twisted with a 2-run woolen yarn, spun 
80ft to the right, and when twisted with the lustre yarn the twist is con- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



259 



tinued to the right, 3 to 4 turns per inch. This hardens the woolen yarn 
twist and practically takes out all the original twist oi the lustre yarn. 
The lustre yarn is allowed to run without any tension on the thread, and 
if the twister machine has 2 sets of feed rolls arranged with different 
speeds it is better to have the lustre yarn fed a trifle faster than the 
woolen or core yarn, which gives it a slight curl effect before weaving. 
The cloth should be crabbed well before being scoured in soap. Give 
a good scouring and use plenty of warm water when rinsing off. Finish 
at 56 inches wide, no pressing being required. Cloth will finish longer 
than woven cotton yarn. , 



Layout: 

2,240 ends 2/20. 

Reed 11 — 3, 68 inches, 40 picks. 

Draw straight on 18 harness. 
Stock for 2-run twisting yarn: 

20% Fine medium wool @ 48c. 

80% Good clean mill waste @ 
12c 



Cost per lb. 



$ .0960 

.0960 

$ .1920 



Stock for body filling: 
Clean mill waste @ 12c. 
Lustre yarn 3s worsted ( 
Spooled for twisting. 



Filling: 
1 pick, 
1 " 



per lb. 

i) 72c. per lb. 



1 Va woolen yarn, soft twist right. 
f 3s lustre worsted, left twist. 
■{ Twisted 3-4 turns per inch to right 
[with 2-run yarn; right twist soft. 

18 BDBBOaBBBOOBBOBOaO 
1' DOIIIDDDiaiDDOIIID 

i; laGDiDiiaouioana 
is BBBoaaBBBoaoBOBaao 

H DBBOBDOOBOBBOOBBBO 

13 ■DDDBBBDDDBBBnnDBG 

1-i BBBOOBBOBOOLlBaBBOO 

H OOBUBOOOBBBCD ■■■ . 

1" 180088800880800080 

9 BBBOnDBDBOnOBBBaOa 

8 OOBCBBOOBBBOOBBOBO 

1 BOOOBBBO-IBOB-aOBB 

6 BaBOOOBOBBOUBBBOOB 

5 DOBBBaODBBBOaDBDBa 

4 BOOBBOBOOOBOBBOrBB 

8 808000888000888000 

"- 008880088080008088 

1 BOOOBOBOOOBBBOOOBB 



COST CALCULATIONS. 

2,240 ends 2/20 cotton yarn = 

4.48 oz. ■+- 10% loom take-up = 4.92 oz. 

3s lustre -f- 8% twist take-up. 
= 14.11 oz. + 10% loom take- 
up = 15.52 oz. 

2-run yarn + 10% twist take- 
up = 7.77 oz. -f- 10% loom 
take-up = 8.54 oz. 

1,360 ends 1% body filling = 

12.08 oz. + 10% loom take-up = 13.28 oz. 

Loom weight 42.26 oz. 

Finished weight, 32 or 33 oz. 
4.92 oz. 2/20s cotton yarn on 
spools @ 30c. per lb = $ .0922 

15.52 oz. lustre yarn + 6% twist- 
ing and weaving waste = 16.51 

oz. @ 72c. per lb = .743» 

8.54 oz. 2-run twisting 4- 18% 
waste allowance = 10.41 oz. @ 
19.20c. per lb = .1249 

13.28 oz. 1% filling + 20% waste 
allowance = 16.60 oz. @ 12c. 
per lb = .1245 

Manufacturing cost $1.0846 

40 picks @ .90c = .3600 

Mill cost $1.4446 



FRONT. 



No allowance is made for extra cost of twisting face yarns, as it will 
be offset by the fact that the warp yarn, 4.48 ounces, and the lustre yarn, 
16% ounces, are bought ready for use, hence the mill is relieved of the 
cost of carding and spinning these yarns. 



Dyeing Particulars. 

As these filling (woolen) yarns are made from mill waste which may 
contain a more or less percentage of cotton, it is necessary to dye the 
pieces with a good union black dye. The dyestuff used in Philadelphia 
with great satisfaction is Union Black A. N. For 100 poinds of goods dyed 
in the piece use a solution containing 5 per cent Unicn Black A. N., ten 
per cent common salt, and 10 per cent Glauber's salt. Enter at low temper- 
ature, bring slowly to a boil, and boil for forty minute?,. Shut off the steam 
and run for thirty minutes longer, then rinse well. 



260 



WOOLEN ANt> WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



HEAVY-WEIGHT WHIPCORD 



This is a cloth used a great deal for riding breeches, and other us- 
ages requiring a strong, hard-faced and flexible cloth; that is, a cloth 
which is elastic, and yet firm at the same time. The twist yarn requires 
the best of wool to ensure evenness and freedom from nubs or specks. 
The yarn must be smooth and the wool thoroughly clean and carefully pre- 
pared. Care should be taken to see that the cards are in good condition 
and doffers not running too fast. Spin five-eighth draft and medium twist. 
This fabric is fulled to 57 inches. Scour, dry, shear, steam, brush and press 
medium. Hold loom length. 

OGID1IIIIDI 11 

■ -tamaamammm 9 

aamaamcx mum " 

umuimaumu a ■ 

amaammmmuma i; 

■ 1 Ulil 5 

BJ1.J1JHI1 I 

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FRONT. 



Warp yarn: 

5X5% twisted + 8% take-up = 2.42 run. 
4,400 ends 2.42 run = 18.20 oz, 

plus 10% take-up = 20.00 oz. 

Filling: 

70y 2 " X 48 picks = 3% run yarn. 
3,384 -s- 3.50 = 9.66 oz. plus 10% 

take-up = 10.60 oz. 

Loom weight = 30.60 oz. 

Finished weight = 26.00 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 
Warp: , 

Fine wool @ 66c. per lb. 

20 oz. twist yarn + 10% wast© 

allowance = 22.00 oz. 

Filling: 

Fine medium Terr. @ 56c. per lb. 

10.6 oz. + 8% waste allowance. = 11.50 oz. 

22 oz. warp @ 66c. per lb = $ .9025 

11.5 oz. filling @ 56c. per lb... = .4025 

Cost of stock $1.3050 

Manufacturing cost: 

48 picks @ $.0082 = .3936 

Extra spooling twisting warp yarn 

5c. per lb.; 22 oz. at 5c 0700 

Mill cost $ .1.7686 




26-Ounce Heavy-Weight Whipcord. 

Warp: 

4,400 ends. 
1 1 

11% — — in dent. 
6 5 
69%" inside listing plus 1" for listing = 

70%" over all. 
White, 5 run; twist 22 times. 
48 picks. 
3% run, left twist. 

warp yarn: 

5 run dark olive brown, left twist. 

5% run white, left twist. 

Yarn is twisted right on twister, 22 turns 

per inch. 
Straight draw on 11 harness. 
2 extra for listing. 



FINE QUALITY (MEN'S WEAR) SUITING 

nis fabric is made from fine wools, combined with a 2-32s two-tone 
worsted twist. The woolen spun yarns require careful carding and spin- 
ning. Yarns must be level and free from twits. Warp yarn is spun with 
1,050 to 1,080 turns of twist, and filling yarn with 950 to 975 turns. The 
draft is ^s to %s. Goods are fulled to 56 inches inside listing, and fin- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



261 



ished woven length. Scour, extract, dry at 57 inches and back burl. Shear, 
steam brush, press medium pressure, giving goods a little steam, and keep 
on Toll over night. 



y ';• % / ;•* / " / > '• * ** v * f J*' j / ;• ! 


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12^-Ounce Fine Quality Men's Wear Suiting. 



Layout: 
3,200 ends. 
ll%/4. 

69%" inside listing. 
1" for listing. 

70%" over all. 

Warp pattern: 

4 — White 5 run, right twist. 
4 — Grey mix, 5 run, right twist. 

Filling pattern: 

4 — Black 5% run, right twist. 

4 — Black and stain 2/32s worsted. 

Weave 4 harness, twill to right. 

54 picks. 

Draw on 8 harness. 



□" 

Diioni 

mmaammaa ej 




rhe grey mix in the warp is made 
follows: 
5% navy blue fine wool @ 60c. 
45% black fine wool @ 60c. 
15% light stain (pearl) fine wool @ C 
35% white fine wool @ 60c. 

100% 



The stain color in the 2/32s worsted twist 
is the same shade as the light stain 
(pearl) in the grey mixture, and is slub 
dyed. 

COST CALCULATIONS. 
Warp: 

3,200 ends h- 5 run = 6.44 oz. + 

10% loom take-up = 7.08 oz. 

Filling: 

70%" X 54 picks = 3,800. 

1,900 threads -=- 5y 2 run = 3.62 

oz. + 10% loQm take-up = 3.98 oz. 

1,900 threads 2/32s + 6% take-up 

in twisting. 
2/30s = 3.62 oz. + 10% loom 

take-up = 3.98 oz. 

Loom weight 15.04 oz. 

Finished weight, 12% oz. 

Warp: 

7.08 oz. -f 8% waste allowance 

= 7.70 oz. @ 60c. per lb = $ .2887 

Filling: 

3.98 oz. + 8% waste allowance 

= 4.22 oz. @ 60c. per lb = .1583 

3.98 oz. worsted + 3% waste al- 
lowance = 4.10 oz. @ $1.20 
per lb = .3075 

$ .7545 
Manufacturing : 

54 picks @ $.0076 = .4104 

Mill cost $1.1649 



262 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



DRESS GOODS SUITING 



12J/2-Ounce, Worsted Loop Filling. 

This fabric is made somewhat after the idea of a Ratine cloth. The 
warp yarn is made from a medium quality of wool, combined with a 
quarter-blood carbonized noil. It is woven with white warp and black 
loop yarn dyed fast acid black to stand cross dyeing. Then the white 
warp can be dyed into £.ny desired shade, giving a handsome lino of 
ground colors, all with the black loop filling. It is also made with all 
white stock, warp and filling, and dyed any desired shade in monotone, 
giving a very rich pebbled cloth, suitable for the finest trade. This worst- 
ed loop may be used also in fancy patterns, such as 1 x 1 hair lines, 2 x 
2 Regatta stripes, and various broken stripes and plaids, in the ground 
pattern. The fabric may, therefore, be classed as a semi-piece dye, plain 
and fancy, also as a regular piece dye fabric. The warp yarn is spun to 
three run, well twisted, and must be even and free from twits, as the plain 
weave is always hard on the warp yarn, and any broken ends, or short 
ends out, must be sewed in, hence the necessity of good strong yarn. 

Filling Yarn. 
The worsted filling yarn is a three-ply twist, necessitating two twist- 
ing operations and twisting machines having two sets of feed rolls ar- 
ranged with variable speeds. The 12s lustre yarn, soft spun, left twist, 
is twisted first with a 2-32s quarter-blood worsted right twist. These 
threads are twisted together about 10 turns per inch, right twist. The 



12J4-Ounce Dress Goods Suiting. 

feed rolls conveying the 12s yarn are speeded to run about 50 per cent 
faster than the rolls conveying the 2 -32s yarn, which makes a continuous 
kinky or curly effect on the yarn. 

This yarn is not suitable for weaving at this stage, as the loop would 
slip on the base thread, hence it is necessary to twist it the second time, 
reversing the twist, that is, to the left, about six turns per inch, with the 
16s single worsted, which will hold the loops tight on the base yarn. Be- 
tween the first and second twisting the yarns are thoroughly steamed. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



263 






You will notice in the first twisting that the original twist is taken out of 
the 12s lustre yarn, which opens the thread and makes it fuzzy at the 
loop, while the twist is continued or hardened on the 2-32s yam. In the 
second twisting the twist of the 2- 32s yarn is taken out, and the twist 
of the 16s single yarn is continued or hardened. 

This yarn construction may be cheapened by using a twist cotton yarn 
for the base instead of the worsted. Any manufacturer not equipped with 
the necessary twisters can buy the yarn already to weave. In burl- 
ing this cloth all knots must be pulled through to the back, but not cut 
off until the cloth is ready to shear. If the knots were cut off previous to 
fulling and scouring, the ends would shrink just enough to cause a 
small pin-head ho^e in every case. After the goods are dyed and dry, the 
knots can be cut off by the shear, care being taken to raise the blades 
enough not to cut off the worsted pebbled effect. Give very slight fulling 
without any cramping. Scour, extract, and piece dye to shade. Dry at 57 
inches, press lightly, and steam off face to lift the worsted loops. 



Layout: 

1,120 ends. 

8% — 2 reed. 

66" inside listing plus 1" for listing = 

67 ' over all. 
20 picks. 

Plain cloth weave. 
Draw straight on 8 harness. 



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bqbobubd t, 

DBDBDBaB 

Warp: 

25% fine med. wool @ 48c. 
75% med. carb. noil @ 40c. 



.= $ .1200 
.= .3000 



Cost per pound A $.4200 



12s lustre worsted 75c. per lb. 

2/32s % blood worsted 87c. per lb. 

16s % blood worsted 80c. per lb. 

67" X 20 picks = 1,340. 

1,340 threads 12s = 3.19 oz. + 
50% twisting take-up = 4.78 
oz. -4- 10% weaving take-up.. = 5.26 oz. 

1,340 threads 2/32s = 2.39 oz. + 
15% twisting take-up = 2.74 
oz. + 10% weaving take-up.. = 3.01 oz. 

1,340 threads 16s = 2.39 oz. + 
20% twisting take-up = 2.86 
oz. -f- 10% weaving take-up.. = 3.14 oz. 

1,120 ends warp 3 run -f 10% take- 
up + 10% waste allowance = 
4.40 oz. @ 42c. per lb = $.1155 

5.26 oz. 12s worsted + 6% waste al- 
lowance = 5.60 oz. @ 75c. per lb.= .2625 

3.01 oz. 2/32s worsted + 3% waste 
allowance = 3.11 oz. @ 87c. per 
lb 

3.14 oz. 16s worsted + 3% waste 
allowance = 3.24 oz. @ 80c. per 
lb = 



.= .1700 



.1620 



Manufacturing cost $ .7100 



20 picks @ $.1100 = .2200 

Extra cost (twisting) = .0250 



Mill cost 



.9550 



Loom weight, 16 oz. 
Finished weight, 12% oz. 



HOMESPUN FABRICS 

The name homespun is applied to a number of different fabrics, usually 
any cloth made from coarse kempy wools, heavy yarns or plain cloth weave 
with a rough finish. The real genuine homespun, however, is a rare fab- 
ric to find in the market, but there are many good imitations, and the fabric 
here illustrated is one of the best of them. As its name implies, the home- 
spun is a cloth made up in the homes, where the wool is carded, yarns are 
spun and cloth is woven, every operation being done by hand labor. The 
process of carding and spinning by hand is a very ancient one, and dates 
away back into the mists of antiquity. In comparatively modern times 
our grandmothers carded the home-grown wools by hand cards, which were 
made out of a piece of hard wood abou t a quarter of an inch thick and 14 
inches long by five inches wide, having a handle in the centre. This hand 
card was covered with a piece of card cloth, also made by hand labor in 



264 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

the early days, but about a century a go an automatic card clothing machine 
was invented. 

Carding Process. 

The carding was done by placing a small bunch of wool on the card 
held by the left hand, and drawing the other card across it against the 
points of the wire by reversing the draw, that is, by pulling with the slant 
of the wire the wool was stripped off. Hence, hand carding was a process 
of combing or carding with the points of the wire on the cards opposed to 
each other, repeating the strci\.e over and over again, in order to mix or 
blend the fibre and colors into a satisfactory mixture. Then, by revers- 
ing the card, the wool was stripiJt'J jtf into a small roll about half to five- 
eighths of an inch in diameter and about 14 inches long. 

This roll was then placed on the spinning wheel and, by a process 
which is impossible to describe, the roll was drawn out and spun into a 
thread of yarn. Then came the dressing of the warp and the weaving of 
the cloth. Needless to say the work was hard and laborious, and, except in 
very exceptional cases of skillful handling, the product was uneven in the 
mixture, and the cloth was raw and Coarse in texture. 




12-Ounce Homespun Fabric. 

After the introduction of carding machines very few farmers did their 
own carding, but sent the wool to the custom carding mills, which made the 
rolls on a machine at the rate of 50 or 60 per minute, at a cost of a few 
cents per pound to the farmer. The spinning and weaving was still done at 
the homes by the wives and daughters. Such was the method of manufactur- 
ing in the olden times, and it is so done to-day in remote districts in Quebec 
and the Maritime provinces. 

Modern Results Too Perfect. 

The modern manufacturer, when h e attempts to make a homespun fabric, 
generally gets the work too perfect in the weaving or blending of the different 
colors, and the cloth lacks the mottled uneven appearance of the genuine 
homespun. In making the homespun here illustrated, the manufacturer 
aimed to follow or imitate the primitive methods, as far as possible, and use 
the modern machinery. Therefore, the wool in this case was natural sheep 
brown for the dark shade, 40 per cent, and white wool, 60 per cent. The 
two colors were oiled and picked separately, each color being run through 
the picker twice, then spread carefully in thin layers, first a layer of white 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 265 

wool, then a layer of natural sheep brown, and so on in alternate layers, 
until the whole batch was laid down in a pile. 

The batch was then run through the picker once, care being taken to 
cut the pile from top to bottom to get as even a blend as possible. In card- 
ing a Bramwell feed was used, and the side drawing from the first breaker 
card was carried over the second carding cylinder to the finisher card by 
ui - Appany carrier. The workers on both breaker and finisher cards were 
set open, so that the stock would not be mixed and carded too much. Just 
enough carding was done to condense the wool into roping sufficient to in- 
sure a good production in the spinning room. If one had an old creel feed 

;iu 01 an Apperiy it would be an improvement. There is no chance to 
use shoddy in this fabric, as all stock must be of good staple wool. The 
yarn was spun to two and one-quarter run warp, right twist and two and 
one-half run filling right twiit, about five-eighths draft being allowed. The fol- 
lowing are a few of the most popular homespun mixtures as made in Scot- 
land: 

40% natural sheep brown. Also the Lovat mixtures: 

60% white wool. H % i ignt indigo blue. 

30% olive dyed wool. 25% dark yellow drab, 

70% white. 9% yellow brown. 

60% seal brown 25% lignt red or cinnamon color. 

40% white 25% chrom e yellow. 

40 % wnite. 5% whit . e> 

10% black wool. 

10% light blue staiik. 38% light indigo blue. 

80% white. 22% chrome yellow. 

25% black. 12 % white. 

75% white. Jg% hr \f ht yellow. 

on«* ii _ j • v. 12 % yellow brown. 

20% yellow drab. 

20% lavender slate. 
60% medium dark brown. 
20% dark cerulean green. 
20% light red brown. 
15% seal brown. 
45% white. 

Blending Done Successfully. 

Scotch manufacturers have used with great success in homespuns, espe- 
cially in dress goods, or materials with rough effects, a percentage of cam- 
els hair tops, also mohair and alpaca wools. These blends were very attrac- 
tive, the mohair combinations especially showing up lustrous and silky. The 
weaves generally used are the plain cloth to finish 10 ounces to 12 ounces, 
and the four harness twill weave for goods to finish 12 ounces to 14 ounces 
per yard, 56 inches wide. Handsome patterns are made in lxl, 2x2 warps 
and fillings, using contrasted shades in both weaves. 

The goods are laid not over 68 inches wide in the reed and scoured be- 
fore fulling, very little of the latter being required. Dry at 57 inches, shear 
off long hairs, brush and press medium. 

Layout: COST CALCULATIONS. 

1,400 ends. 1,400 ends 2% run = 6.20 

10V<>/2 reed. oz. + 10% take-up.. = 6.82 oz. 

67" inside listing plus %" for listing = 6.82 oz. + 15% waste al- 

67%" over all. lowa.nce = 8 oz. 

Listing of white yarn; each selvage. 68" X 24 picks 2y 2 run 

= 6.53 oz. + 10% take- 
Warp: up = 7.18 oz. 

91/ 7.18 oz. -f- 15% waste al- 

J% run - lowance = 8.45 oz. 



Flllingr " Loom weight 14.00 oz. 16.45 oz. 

2% run. 

Weave 4 harness. Finished weight, 12 oz. 

Twill to right. gtock . 

Good quality B super @ 50c. per lb. 
16.45 oz. @ 50c = $ .5140 

Manufacturing: 

24 picks @ $.0160 = $ .2544 

Mill cost $ .7684 



266 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



MEDIUM-WEIGHT BOYS' SUITING 

With Silk Twist. 

This is a strong serviceable fabric for boys' suitings. It is made from 
coarse imported wool, good shoddy or mill waste and silk waste. The silk 
waste gives it the necessary strength, and will boil out the same as an all- 
wool cloth. Full to 57 inches wide, scour, dry, shear, steam, brush and press 
medium. Finish loom length. 




13^2-Ounce Medium-Weight Boys' Suiting. 



Layout: i 

1,200 ends. 

Warp: 

9/2 reed; 66 2-3". 
20 picks. 

PATTERN. 

1% run grey yarn 7 111112222211111 =20 ends. 
2% X 6 run twist j 111112222211111 = 20 ends. 

Plain weave. 

40 X 5 patterns X 5 sections 
= 1,200 ends. 
Filling: 

Pattern and colors same as warp. 
20 picks. 

YARN CALCULATIONS. 
600 ends, 1% run, right twist, grey yarn = 3.43 oz. + 10% loom take- 
up = 3.77 oz. 

Twi«t r 600 threads, 2% run, left twist, black yarn = 2.53 oz. + 10% loom 

,/,,'' J take-up -f- 8% twisting take-up = 3.02 oz. 

" j" h J 600 threads, 6 run, left twist white silk yarn = 1 oz. + 10% loom 

p "' L take-up + 10% twisting take-up = 1.19 oz. 

Filling: 68" over all X 20 picks = 1,360. 
680 threads, 1% run, right twist grey yarn = 3.88 oz. + 10% loom take- 
up = 4.27 oz. 

TT,,i=t f 68 ° threads, 2% run, left twist black yarn = 2.86 oz. + 10% loom 

1 » «m« J take-up + 8 % twisting take-up = 3.13 oz. 

„f_ ,™lf 1 680 threads, 6 run, left twist white silk yarn = 1.13 oz. + 10% loom 

per men. ^ take-up + 10% twisting take-up = 1.34 oz. 

Loom weight 16.72 oz. 

Finished weight 13.50 oz. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



267 



STOCK BLEND. 3 

Gray yarn stock: _ 

Medium twist, mule draft 5/Ss. 8 

25% black shoddy @ 12c = $ .0300 

45% white shoddy @ 30c = .1350 

30% white Joria wool @40c = .1200 3 

Cost per lb $ .2850 3 

Black twisting stock: - 

Yarn spun soft, mule draft 5/Ss. 

50% black shoddy @ 12c = $ .0600 

30% black garnetted silk @ 36c. = .1080 i 
20% black coarse wool @30c...= .0600 

■ — 1 

Cost per lb $ .2280 

White silk twisting stock: 2 

Yarn spun soft, mule draft fully 2/3s. 

10% fine white wool @ 56c = $ .0560 

90% white silk waste @ 40c... = .3600 

Cost per lb $ .4160 



77 oz. grey warp 1% run. 
27 oz. grey lilling 1% run. 



04 oz. + 15% waste allow- 
ance = 9.46 oz. 

@ 28%c per lb. . .= 

02 oz. black twisting 2% 
run warp. 

13 oz. b!ack twisting 2% 
lun filling. 



15 oz. +15% waste allow- 
ance = 7.23 oz. 

@ 22.8c. per lb. . .= 

19 oz. white silk twisting 
6 run warp. 

34 oz. white silk twisting 
6 run filling. 



53 oz. + 6% waste allow- 
ance = 2.70 oz. 

@ 41.6c. per lb. . . = 



$.1685 



$.1030 



$.0702 



Stock per yard 19.39 oz. $.3417 



Spooling and twist- 
ing 2.53 oz. @ 3%c. 

per lb = 

Manufacturing cost: 
20 picks @ $.0110.= 



Mill cost 



$.0055 
$.2200 
$.5672 



HAIR LINES FOR MEN'S WEAR 

It is generally acknowledged that the earliest known weave that we have 
any samples of is the plain weave, without patterns of any kind, but, no 
doubt, after a time some inventive and progressive weaver discovered that 
it was possible to introduce changes in threads or weave, and a new era 
dawned in the history of weaving. Possibly the first discovery was making 
the warp one thread of dark colored yarn with one thread of white yarn, 
and weaving it also one dark and one white, using the plain weave, and 
there we have the original hair line. In due time from this plain weave 
hair line there was evolved the four harness crow twill lxl hair line and the 
2x2 line also. 

By this weave it was possible to construct a heavier cloth than could be 
made by the plain weave, as more ends and picks per inch could be 
put in, consequently giving better weaving. This weave, Figure 1, 
dressed lxl warp, contrasted colors and woven 2x2 filling, contrasted colors, 
produces a lxl hair line of the same appearance as the plain cloth, but a 
heavier material. By changing the dressing pattern two blacks and two 
white and weaving 2x2 black and white, using the same weaving chain as 
Figure 1, you make a 2x2 line or Regatta stripe as at Figure 2. 



Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



:■■■ White 

■ ■DB White 

■ ■■D Black 
I :■■ Blue 



"■■■ Black 

!■"■■ While 

■ ■■D White 

!"■■ Black 



The pattern as it will appear when woven can be easily traced out by 
referring to Figure 1. Note that the first white warp thread is floated over 
three picks and must necessarily show the white line for those three picks 
The fourth pick which binds that warp thread, being a white pick crossing 
over the white warp thread, makes the continuation of the white line. The 



268 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARi 

next warp thread, being black, is shown the first pick as binding the thread, 
and as this pick is black, covering the black warp, it will begin a black 
line. The warp thread is then floated over the next three picks, which 
completes the black line, and so on with the other threads. It is quite an 
interesting study for anyone not a practical designer to pick up a weave 
chain and apply the warp and filling pattern in this way and so produce the 
effect of the woven cloth. By combining Figures 1 and 2, as represented in 
Figure 3, we make a lxl hair line on four front harnesses and a 2x2 line on 
the four back harnesses. The pattern can be made any desired width by 
dressing the warp, for front sections, one thread black and one thread white 
for the desired width, and dressing the warp for the back section two 
threads black and two threads white for the desired width, then drawing the 
lxl on front four harness and the 2x2 on the back four harness, and weav- 
ing it 2x2, as marked on chain, Figure 3, you get a combination hair line 
stripe, being lxl hair line for desired width and 2x2 hair line for desired 
width of stripe. 

Fig. 3. 

£ dbbbdbbb Black 

- BB^HBT ■■ Black 
« BBBDSBBD White 
& B'JBDBBQB White 

The next step in the evolution of h air lines is to . take the single cloth 
weave, Figure 1, and make a double cloth of it, as shown by weave, Fig- 
ure 4, which is known as the double plain weave, but it is the same weave as 
Figure 1 on the face, and same weave inverted for the back. This double 
cloth weave will allow of making a heavier cloth out of the same yarns, or 
by using fine yarns, such as worsted yarns, it will make very neat hair lines 
in a medium-weight cloth. This weave chain dressed and woven as marked 
on chain will make a lxl hair line double cloth, as illustrated. By dressing 
the warp one thread of grey and seven threads of black, and weaving three 
picks black and one pick of grey, using Figure 4 weave chain, it will make 
a 3x1 hair line, face and back beingthe same. Again, by changing the pat- 
Fig. 4. 



. □□■■■OBQF'ify 

E-i ■DBDDDBBV'ircy 

•7 BODDBBBD Black 

s BBBDBnnn Black 

O rDBMDBa (irey 

<& BDBaDDBB Orey 

fa BD"" DBBBD Black 

BBBDBDDD Blaok 



tern in dressing to four threads grey and four threads black, filling two black 
and two grey, and using the Figure 4 weave, changing the draft so that 
grey threads are drawn in on name ss Nos. 1, 2, 5 and 6, and black threads 
on Nos. 2, 4, 7 and 8, it will make a 2x2 hair line, face and back of cloth be- 
ing the same pattern. Although hair lines may be out of style to-day, it 
was only a few years ago when there was an active demand for them in fine 
high-grade worsteds, especially in the 2x2 line in combination of skein dyes 
and mixtures or twists. There is quite a yardage cut up every year in the 
cheaper grades among the pants manufacturers, so that they may be almost 
considered a staple cloth. 

The lxl and 3x1 lines are particularly hard to make perfect, or even rea- 
sonably perfect, as any variation in size or imperfection in the yarn, arising 
from bad carding or spinning, show up very strongly on the finished goods. 
Hair lines are made in single yarn warp and filling, also all-cotton warp 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



269 



and shoddy filling, and in combinations of single yarns 
twist, and in worsteds, skein dyes, mixtures and twists. 



with double and 



Points of Importance. 
There are a few special points of importance in the manufacture of 
these goods, and one of the most important is the absolute necessity of 
having level and perfect yarns. Yarns that may be used in the ordinary 
class of work and produce satisfactory goods, if woven into hair lines may 
be so imperfect as to cause uie goods to be classed as seconds. This is a 
strong statement, but it can be backed up by experionce, hence great care 
is necessary in the preparation of the stock and in th carding and spinning 
departments. 







1 x 1 Hair Line Double Cloth. 



If yarns are carded and spun right, it is a comparatively easy matter 
to dress and weave the goods, but careful attention must be given to .the burl- 
ing and sewing in the finishing department, to see that all threads are in 
their proper place. All broken ends or threads out must be sewed in before 
fulling. Full to 55 inches inside listing, and in the finer grades of goods it 
will make them' feel more clothy to full a little in length. Dry to 57 inches 
inside listing. Shear, brush with steam, press medium pressure, 55 inches 
inside listing. 

We give the layout and cost calculations for three fabrics: 

(1) Medium grade single cloth, weave as Figure 2. 

(2) A double cloth with half double and twist yarns. 

(3) A fine 2-40s worsted in black and white yarns. 

Medium Quality 14-Ounce Hair Line. 



Layout: 
1,600 ends 
2 run warp. 
Right twist. 
ll%/2 reed. 

70" inside listing plus 2" for listing = 72" 
over all. 

Pilling: 

2% run, left twist. 
25 picks. 

Weave as Figure 2. 
2" for listing. 



Warp pattern: 

2. Black, 2 run, right twist. 

2. Light grey, 2 run, right twist. 



Filling pattera: 

1. Black, 2^4 run, 

2. Light grey 2% 
1. Black, 2V t run, 



left twist, 
run, left twist, 
left twist. 



Stock mixture — Black: 
30 °fn fine medium wool (< 
70% good black shoddy 

Cost per pound 



44c... = 
i 12c. .= 



.1320 
.0840 



$ .2160 



270 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Stock mixture — Light grey: 

30% fine med. white wool @ 44c.= $ .1320 

30% white shoddy @ 30c = .0900 

40% good black shoddy @ 12c. = .0480 

Cost per pound $ .2700 

CALCULATIONS. 

1,600 ends 2 run = 8.00 oz. 

72 + 25 picks 2% run = 7.60 oz. 

15.60 oz. 
10% weaving take-up = 1.56 oz. 

Loom weight 17.16 oz. 

17.16 oz. yarn + 15% waste allowance 
= 20 oz. 

Fine Hair Line, One-Half 

Layout: 

3,200 ends. 
ll%/4 reed. 

69%" inside listing plus 1%" for listing = 
71" over all. 

Warp pattern: 

4. Black and white 8 X 8 D. and T., 22 

turns per inch, right twist. 
4. Black, 4 run single, right twist. 

Filling pattern: 

2. Black, 4 run single, right twist. 
2. Black and white 8 X 8 D. and T. 
6% take-up in twisting yarns. 
Weaving chain on 8 harnesses. 
2 harnesses for listing. 
Straight draw. 

Design No. 1. 

. □□■□■DM Twist 

Eh bddobbbo Twist 

V IDIIfDID Black 

£ BBBDBCDD Blacli 

2 OQBDBDBB Twist 

K BODDBBBO Twist 

Ed BDBBDnBD Black 

BBBDBDDD Black 



HHHHMWWM 



10 oz. black @ $.2160 per lb = $ .1350 

10 oz. light grey @ $.2700 per lb.= .1700 



Manufacturing : 

25 picks @ $.0150. 



$ .3050 



.2625 
$ .5675 



Layout: 

5,600 ends. 
2/40s worsted. 
13%/6 reed. 

69" inside listing plus 1" 
over all. 

Warp pattern: 
4. White 2/40s. 
4. Black 2/40s. 



Fine Worsted 



for listing = 70" 



Design No. 2. 



DDBDBDBB White 

BDDDBBBn White 

aciBBanaa Bi» C k 

BBBDBODD Black 

GDBDBDBB White 

BDDDBBBD White 

BDBBODBn Black 

BBBDBDnD Black 



&&££S5H3 



Double and Twist Yarns. 

CALCULATIONS. 
1,600 ends 8X8 twist + 6% 

take-up = 3.76 runs = 4.25 oz. 

1,600 ends 4 run = 4.00 oz. 

71" X 44 picks = 3,124. 

1,562 threads 8X8 twist + 6% 

take-up = 4.15 oz. 

1,562 threads 4 run = 3.90 oz. 

16.30 oz. 
Plus 10% take-up = 1.63 oz. 

Loom weight 17.93 oz. 

4.25 oz. twist warp. 
4.15 oz. twist filling. 

8.40 oz. -f 10% waste = 9.33 oz. 

4.00 oz. black warp. 
3.90 oz. black filling. 

7.90 oz. + 15% waste = 9.30 oz. 

Stock for twisting yarns: 

Fine picklock wool @ 68c. per lb. 
Stock for black yarn: 

60% fine med. wool @ 56c = $ .3360 

40% fine shoddy @ 24c = .0960 

Cost per pound $ .4320 

9.33 oz. twist @ 68c. per lb = $ .3965 

9.30 oz. black @ $.4320 per lb..= .2511 

$ .6476 
Manufacturing: 

44 picks @ $.8600 = .3784 

Extra for twist 0240 

Mill cost , $1.0500 

2x2 Line. 

Filling pattern: 
2. Black 2/40s. 
2. White 2/40s. 
66 picks. 

Weave chain: 
Straight draw. 
8 harness. 
2 harnesses for listing. 

CALCULATIONS. 

5,600 ends 2/40s = 8.00 o^. 

70" X 66 picks = 6.32 oz. 

14.31 oz. 
Plus 10% take-up = 1.43 oz. 

Loom weight 15.74 oz. 

2/40s worsted 15% oz. -4- 6% 
waste = 16.75 oz. @ $1 per 

lb = $1.0469 

Manufacturing cost and charges.... .4620 

Mill cost $1.5089 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 271 

In the finishing of these hair line worsteds they are improved in han- 
dle by giving the goods a slight filling. Goods should he scoured first and 
dried out, then examined for imperfections, which should be carefully re- 
paired. The goods are then fulled with a good neutral soap for 30 to 50 min- 
utes, or possibly longer — it will depend largely on conditions. Dry at 57 




Fine Hair Line, One-half Double and Twist Yarn. 

inches. Steam, brush and shear. Press medium hard, blowing steam on 
face of goods. Keep on roll all night. If this fabric is made in double and 
twist or mixture yarns, which will cost 25 cents per pound more than regu- 
lar yarns, it would add to the cost of stock at least 10 cents to 12^ cents a 
yard, but as there would be labor charges for dyeing, winding and spooling, 
there would be a slight reduction in the manufacturing cost. 



COVERTS AND VENETIANS 



This cloth received its name in England many years ago, because it 
was used at one time almost exclusively as a sportsman's cloth for shoot- 
ing coats, etc., its neutral tones of color blending with the rocky ridges and 
stones, als > with the autumn shades of heather, furze and grasses, making 
it an ideal cloth for use in the coverts, which is the English term for the 
hiding places of the game birds. Hence, the name "covert cloth" was ap- 
plied to this particular cloth. The cloth is now used extensively for men's 
spring and fall overcoatings, ladies' wear skirts, saltings and cloakings, 
although the ladies' trade use more of the single yarn coverts in mixtures, 
etc. The real covert cloth is always made from double and twist warp 
yarns, with single yarn fillings, but, as noted above, many cloths are called 
coverts because they are woven with the covert weave, but are made of 
single yarns. The so-called single yarn coverts are really Venetians, and 
are known as such by all manufacturers. 

There is always considerable latitude allowed in the trade regarding 
the name or style of a fabric, especially in the ladies' wear, and we can 
find many different fabrics, all known as coverts in the cloaking trade, 
and while most of them have some of the characteristics of coverts, yet 
they are not the genuine covert as Judged from the woolen manufacturer's 
point of view. 



272 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



There seems to be a leaning at present toward this one-time popular 
cloth, and it is noted in the English fashion reports that it is again 
gaining in popularity. There is every reason to believe that it will once 
more become a leading fabric in this market, and a brief outline on dif- 
ferent makes of Venetian and coverts, with suggestions regarding their 
manufacture may not be amiss, as we shall take up yarns and weaves 
used in a few of the more expensive heavy-weight English Venetian cov- 
erts, with some points in their construction and manufacture. 

Heavy-Weight Covert Cloaking. 

A heavy-weight Venetian covert cloaking, with a pronounced whipcord 
effect, is made with a 15-harness sateen weave, as shown in Design No. 1. 
This weave is better adapted for fine yarns in mixtures than in the twist 
yarns. The warp yarn may be in a lawn mixture shade or in a khaki 
shade in mixture, while the filling should be a similar tone of color, but a 
solid shade, that is, all dyed in the stock and without any admixture of 
white or fancy colors. The weave is so constructed that the filling yarn 
does not show on the face of the goods, and almost any shade, similar in 
the general tone of the warp, may be used as a filling. 

An excellent warp mixture is 65 per cent of a light fawn wool, 25 per 
cent white wool, 5 per cent brilliant green wool and 5 per cent old gold 
wool, spun to 6 run right twist, with filling of a solid fawn shade, spun 
to 3 run right twist. 

In making the selection of wools for the percentages of white and fancy 
colors for this mixture, it is absolutely necessary to get the best quality 
of AA pulled wool, which will largely eliminate any danger of specks or 
nibs in the carding. Unless the cards are in first-class condition, no one 
should attempt to make this yarn, as any speckledness in the mixture would 



DDDBaDDBaaDDDDD 

ODnBDLjn-QDDaaDB 

DDDDDDaDDDBDnDB 
DDDDnaBDDDBnDnD 

Gn«na~BDODannDD 
□□■□DQanoacQGBQ 
DanDDDDnnBDnn»a 
ananaBnnDBDDDDn 
□■□□OBaQnnnnaDD 
DBDDnnDDnnanBDD 

annDDDDDHDnDBDD 
□□□DBDDQHDnnQCO 

■DDDBDanDnnnnDa 
■□□onnoonQDBQQn 



Design No. 1. 



ruin the goods and give them a cheap appearance, and no amount of work 
afterward in the finishing department will overcome any imperfection of 
mixture in the carding. It is the clear, perfect mixture in the warp face 
of these goods which gives to them the snappy character, and lifts the 
cloth out of the common run of Venetians. 



Layout for Design No. 

5,760 ends. 
72" wide in reed. 
Reed 16.5 in dent. 
76 picks. 



Warp yarn: 

6 run, right twist. 
Pilling yarn: 

3 run, right twist. 

Loom weight 32 oz. 

Finished weight 29 oz. 

54" inside listing. 



This cloth should be woven face down, and the weave plan is marked 
out that way. Weave twill to right on face. In finishing it should be fulled 
in length at least 7 or 8 per cent, which will cause it to hold about 5 pel 
cent shrinkage in length when finished. Take out of fulling mills at 56% 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 273 

inches inside of lists. Goods should be woven with a wide special listing, 
and goods should be tacked together at listing, face of goods inside. This 
tacking together of the lists is necessary to prevent rolling of the lists 
when fulling. If not tacked, the piece would roll up in a rope the entire 
length, and if continued to run in this condition in the fulling mill would 
completely ruin the goods. 

FullLng and Scouring. 

After fulling and scouring, the goods should be put on a wet gig, using 
old teasels, giving a few runs, not to cause a nap, but to straighten out 
the fibres on face, so it will be possible to get a clear, smart finish when 
sheared. After giving it a few runs on shears, reverse the piece end for 
end, and give it a few runs at a lower notch, which will give the goods a 
smart, clean appearance and bring out the whipcord effsct. Steam brush 
well, press medium, giving a little steam on face as the piece is rolled up. 
Keep on roll for 10 to 12 hours before unrolling. 

A much neater design than the foregoing may be made on 
the 10-harness sateen, as shown in Design No. 2. This weave 
is also adapted more for a fine mixture warp than for twist yarns, but it 
could be made in fine worsted in two-tone twists. This weave has al- 
ways been a favorite one for ladies' cloths, such as cloakings or coatings. 
It makes a fabric which drapes well, if fashion so demands it, and at the 
same time it is solid enough in texture to hold its shape if made up in 
a close-fitting garment. It is not such a popular weave for men's wear, 
unless a bold Venetian effect is wanted. 

The usual weave for men's wear Venetians is the regular 5-harness 
doeskin weave, Figure 3, and for men's wear coverts, twist warps, Figure 4. 

■■□■■ DBGBS 

■■■MO Bl ta 

■DIM iQII I 

■■■OH ■ DBDQ 

Figure 3. Figure 4. 

5 harness doeskin. 5 harness covert. 

Layout for 10 harness sateen cloth: Filling: 

5.320 ends. Solid shade 3 run yarn, right twist. 

71" wide in reed. Loom weight 24 oz. 

15 Reed, 5 in dent. Finished weight 20 oz. 

60 picks per inch. 54" wide. 

Manufacturing particulars same as the 15 

Warp mixture: harness sateen. 

6 run yarn, right twist. 

If anyone desires a still lighter weight cloth than the above two ex- 
amples, 10 and 15 harness, and at the same time retain a like balance 
of structure, it would be necessary to use an 8-harness sateen weave, and 
a finer spun filling, if it is desired to make it in woolen yarns. For in- 
stance, if one desired to make a 16- ounce cloth, but having the same 
balance of structure and character as fabric No. 2, a satisfactory layout 
would be as follows: 

Layout for 8 harness sateen cloth: 

5,320 ends. 

71" wide in reed. 

Reed 15.5 in dent. nn _ nn _ nn 

54 picks per inch. nnSnnaBS 

DOG BQDB 

Warp mixture: nBDDBnan 

6 run yarn, right twist. PnaSnaSa 

Filling: ■aDBODDO 

3% run yarn, right twist. ■DDDDBDD 
Loom weight 20 oz. 

Finished weight 16 oz. • 



274 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

These three examples are good, high-grade Venetian coverts for ladies' 
wear, and while they are not difficult goods to make, it requires care and 
watchfulness in selecting the right slock for the warp mixtures. As men- 
tioned before, the mixture must be carded free from any nibs or specks, 
and the yarns should be smooth, round and level. Any roughness of the 
yarns detracts from the sightliness of the goods. A manufacturer would 
express it that the yarn should have a "skin" to it, meaning smooth and 
even. It is such yarns that give beauty and character to the goods, some- 
thing distinctive in itself, like that innate good breeding which is the dis- 
tinctive character of a gentleman. 

It is always more satisfactory to weave all of these sateen weaves 
with the face down. This is self-evident, if one will look at the weave 
chains. Take the 15-harness' sateen. If this was woven face up, each warp 
thread would be raised up 13 times consecutively, and then down for 2 picks. 
In other words, 13 harnesses would have to be raised up each pick, and if 
it was being woven in an open shed loom there would be great danger 
of warp threads floating, causing imperfections in the cloth. These 
weaving chains are, therefore, made out to weave face down. 

Cheap Attractive Venetian Covert. 

A cheap and yet an attractive Venetian covert can be made as a piece- 
dyed fabric, union mixture. They are made with different percentages of 
cotton, but if over 30 per cent is used, the cloth will handle cottony and 
hard. The cotton is mixed with the wool stock previous to carding, and in 
order to produce a satisfactory fabric, free from cotton specks, it is ab- 
solutely necessary to use a double-combed cotton stock. This will cost a 
good deal more than the ordinary carded cotton, but it is the only safe 
stock to use when making this kind of a fabric. The best carded or double- 
carded cotton stock cannot be depended upon, as it will show up most un- 
expectedly small specks after the goods are dyed, and the darker the 
shades of the goods the more pronounced will be the specks. These specks 
are generally so small that they cannot be detected in the yarns, and will 
not show until after dyeing, the carding, spinning and weaving being all 
done in the white stock. The overseers and superintendent, unless ex- 
perienced in such goods, would not suspect that the yarns would show 
specky. The writer knows of a case of this kind where several hundred 
pieces in process were all more or less specky, and it was not known or 
suspected until the first pieces were dyed. 

These specks are caused by the fact that in carding very little of the 
short fibres of the cotton are taken out, the object of carding being to take 
out dirt and nibs, and lay the fibres parallel, including both long and short 
staple fibres. In the process of combing the cotton stock, the object is to 
remove all nibs and short fibres, retaining only the longer staple, and lay 
them parallel with each other. Thus you will readily see why the combed 
cotton stock is the proper stock to use in making this fabric. 

If this union mixture in Venetian is properly made and dyed into the 
fashionable shades of costume cloths, it will compare very favorably in 
appearance with the higher grades of all wools. The yarn should be spun 
soft, with just enough twist in the warp yarn to insure good weaving, and 
the filling yarn just twist enough to weave well. 

Layout for piece-dyed cotton mix. Venetian: Warp- 

h 00 ^ , ends ; ■' * r^ • p tr t, , 4% 'run, left twist. 

34 holes; twist on a Davis & Furber mule. 
Reed 15.4 in dent. Filling-: 

66 2-3" inside list plus 1%" for listing 40 picks per inch. 

= 68" over all. 2% run yarn, left twist. 

Weave: 

8 harness doeskin, straight draft. 
2 harnesses for listing. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



275 



DDOQQHCD 
DLjBnnDDD 
DDDnDDDB 

DQnnBDDD 

amannana 

DDDDDDBa 
DDDBDaDD 
■DDDDDDD 

Warp stock mixture: 

30% white dou. combed cotton @ 

24c = $ .0720 

20% white fine wool carb. @ 

54c = .1080 

25% white fine noil carb. @ 42c.= .1050 
25% white worsted yarn waste 

@ 38c = .0950 

Cost per pound $ .3800 

Filling stock mixture: 

25% white carded cotton @ 16c.= $ .0400 
20% white garnetted waste @ 

3Sc = .0760 

30% white fine shoddy @ 30c... = .0900 
25% white light fawn shoddy @ 

20c = .0500 

Cost per pound $ .2560 



4,000 ends 4% run warp = 8.42 

oz. + 10% take-up = 9.26 oz. 

68" X 40 picks = 1,920. 

1,920 2% run filling = 1,284 + 

10% weaving take-up = 14.12 oz. 

Loom weight 23.38 oz. 

9.26 oz. yarn warp + 8% waste 
allowance = 10 oz. @ 38c. per 
lb = $ .2375 

14.12 yarn filling + 15% 
waste allowance = 16.6 oz. @ 
$.2560 per lb = .2656 

$.5031 
Manufacturing cost: 

40 picks @ $.0900 = .3600 

Mill cost $.8632 



Full to 56 inches in width, inside list. Shrink in length to hold 5 
per cent when finished. Scour thoroughly, using plenty of warm water in 
washing off, in order to insure against any soap being left in the goods. 
It is always a safe plan to add a few quarts of ammonia to the last scour- 
ing bath, which will quickly emulsify any soap, and dlow of its being read- 
ily washed out by the warm water. After scouring, the goods are ready for 
the dyeing process, and before dyeing the pieces should be run in boiling 
water with a little ammonia added as a precautionary measure against any 
possibility of soap or grease being yet in the goods. Some soaps of the cheap- 
er grades are made from impure ingredients, and adulterations are ex- 
tremely hard to get washed out, and as these cloakings have to be dyed into 
many very delicate shades, ths slightest trace of any foreign matter in the 
pieces will cause uneven dyeing and streaky goods, and once pieces are un- 
even or clouded in the dyeing it is impossible to remedy the unevenness 
without first stripping off all the color and re-dyeing again. All of this 
costs time and money, and besides the goods never handle so well after- 
wards. Any stripping and re-dyeing is always at the expense of the ap- 
pearance and handle of the goods, and prevention of the trouble is much 
better than correction afterward, and, as mentioned above, a little ammo- 
nia added to the last scouring bath will be of great help in thoroughly 
cleansing the goods. The action of ammonia in emulsifying all fatty acids 
is very strong, and is much more rapid in its action than either soda or 
potash liquors. It has the peculiar property of increasing the action of 
other alkalies in scouring of woolens and when used in the scouring process 
will insure a more thorough emulsifi cation of all fatty acids, and, conse- 
quently, a cleaner piece of goods, and level shades in the dyehouse. Am- 
monia may be used to advantage in both finishing room and dyehouse, with- 
out any danger of injjring either goods or colors, provided reasonable 
care is exercised in its use, and that it is properly diluted. There are 
several colors, however, which are changed somewhat by ammonia fumes 
or. by coming in contact with a solution of ammonia. For instance, acid 
colors, in delicate shades, are always altered by ammonia fumes, or on com- 
ing in contact with any alkali, and goods dyed with acid color should not 
be allowed to come in contact with any alkali. Ammonia should not be 
used in the fulling mills, or in any machine where it may come in contact 
with brass or copper rolls, because a strong solution, when it comes in con- 
tact wi'h such metals, will form at once cuprammonia, and cause a stain 
on white or light colored woolen goods, which no amount of washing will 
remove, and as such stains have a strong affinity l~r dyes, it will show much 



276 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

darker after dyeing. Such stains on this Venetian fabric would scarcely be 
noticed before dyeing, but afterward will show up quite distinctly, and 
cannot be removed. 

These goods are dyed with wool dyes, after being given a light chrom- 
ing, such shades as light and medium tones of fawn, light olive, khaki 
shades, light blues and black. The mixture effect is caused by the white 
cotton in the stock mixture, which is not colored by the wool dye, and, 
therefore, shows equal to a 30 per cent white mixture. The fabric may 
also be dyed into solid shades by using union dyestuffs, coloring similai 
shades as above, but the fabric is not so attractive, as it lacks the mixture 
effect. When colored in solid shades, it is not necessary to use combed 
cotton in the stock mixture, the ordinary carded cotton being quite good 
enough, as in solid shades colored with union dyes there is not any danger 
of specks. 

Another Piece-Dyed, Cotton Mixture Covert. 

Another piece-dyed, cotton mixture covert fo~ ladies' spring 
and fall coatings is made with a fine white cotton thread 
twisted with another and heavier spun yarn. This yarn may also be a 
union mixture, that is, a mixture of cotton and wool carded and spun to- 
gether. The white cotton thread should be much finer than the union 
mixture yarn. If this thread is heavy it will make the fabric look open 
and coarse and also gives a hard cottony handle. A good proportion would 
be a union mixture of 30 per cent carded cotton with 70 per cent fine wool 
rpun to 4% run left soft twist — about 19-20 holes of twist on a Davis and 
Furber mule. This yarn is twisted right twist with a 40s white cotton 
thread, 18 turns per inch. The 30 per cent carded cotton is colored a fast 
shade of stone drab before being mixed in the batch, and dye must be fast to 
cross dyeing. The percentage of wool should be a fine short staple grade 
free from any shive or burr. A good fall California carbonized and neutral- 
izedized is a good wool to use, and there can also be a percentage of garnet- 
ted white yarn waste. This fabric requires a nice level thread, because any 
unevenness will show up very strong after being twisted with the white 
cotton thread, and as the yarns are carded, spun and woven, in a very light 
shade, any unevenness will not be so easily detected until after the goods 
are dyed and finished, and as there would naturally be many pieces in proc- 
ess, the loss would be quite serious if much uneven yarn was allowed to 
pass. Hence the carding and spinning overseers must give special atten- 
tion to the product as it passes through their respective departments. As 
the yarns are quite fine, if properly prepared and carded, a spinner 
should be able to run two mules, say, 600 to 800 spindles on piece work, 
and get off a good production also. Weavers should operate two looms on 
such work, which would lessen the labor costs by at least one-third of the 
usual cost on regular goods. When getting ready to twist the spun yarn 
with the white cotton thread, it is usual to spool the two yarns together, 
and careful attention should be given to the tension on the several threads, 
so that the twist may be as perfect as possible. Twisting may be done on 
either mules or on regular twisting machines. 



layout for 14 oz. 


piece-dyed double 


and 


Filling. 


twist union 


covert: 




4% run. left twist. 


2.800 ends. 






40 picks. 


8.5 reed. 








70" inside listing 
over all. 


+ 1" for listing = 


71" 


□■■"■::■■□■ 
:■"■■"■::■■ 






■■QBCWBDan 


Yarns: 






■DBHDBDBBn 






■l]IGIII]IDI 


Union mix yarn, 


4% run. left twist, 


soft. 





twisted with l/40s cotton peeler combed 
yarn: twisted 18 turns per inch to right. 

Draw straight on 10 harnesses. 

2 harnesses for listing. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 277 

CALCULATIONS. Single 40s combed peelers, on cones, 40c. 

2,800 ends 4% run = 5.88 oz. + _ P er lb - 

6% twisting take-up = 6.23 oz. «°5 oz. warp. 

2,800 ends l/40s = 1.33 oz. + 7 - 35 oz - filling. 

10% twisting take-up = 1.46 oz. .. , „„ , , „„, . ., 

71" X 40 picks = 2,840. 14.20 oz. + 10% waste allowance 

2,840 ■+- 4% run filling = 6.50 oz. filling. = 15 - 60 oz - @ $- 3560 Pff . ,, 71 

6.23 oz. + 10% weaving take- n an ID - : • •••, ;• ■ • ;.-- — 9.i*(i. 

U p __ . = 6 85 oz 1.60 oz. cotton + 3% waste allow- 



1.46 oz. -f 10% weaving take- 



up = 1.60 oz. P er lb - 

6.50 oz. -f 10% weaving take- 
up = 7.35 oz. 



ance = 1.65 oz. @ 40c. 



$ .3883 



Loom weight 15.80 oz. 

Finished weight 14 oz. 



Manufacturing cost (2 loom, work): 

40 picks 2400 



Warp and filling stock mixture: MlU cost $ - 6283 

30% carded cotton, dyed, @ 16c= $ .0480 
70% fine short wool, carb., @ 44c.= .3080 



$ .3560 



These goods are fulled in the grease, giving them a slight shrinkage 
in length, so they will finish loom length. Give a thorough scouring and 
wash off with plenty of warm water, using a little ammonia in the last scour- 
ing to insure freedom from soap. Goods are now ready for dyeing, but pre- 
vious to dyeing they should be run in boiling water, as recommended for the 
cotton mixture Venetian cloth. Chrome lightly, and dye to shade with 
wool dyes, which have no affinity for cotton. The white cotton thread should 
show up clear white, as any stain on this cotton thread caused by a poor se- 
lection of dyestuffs or improper handling in the process, will give the goods 
a muddy appearance, and detract from their selling value. If the finishing 
room is equipped with a sand papering machine it will greatly improve 
their appearance and handle if given a few runs on it. Finish clear, press 
medium. Finish 55 inches inside listing. 

To compete successfully in the manufacture of this class of goods, the 
mill should have its own carbonizing plant, so it would be possible to buy 
defective or burry California wools, and do all its own carbonizing and neu- 
tralizing. ,__ j 

Men's Wear, Fine All-Wool Covert. Double and Twist Warp. 

This is the genuine covert cloth which was named "covert cloth" in 
England many decades ago. This cloth is usually considered one of the 
hardest cloths to make perfect, as any imperfection or irregularity in the 
yarns before being twisted, and any variation in the twist will make a 
streaky piece of goods. Those mills which have tried to make this cloth 
and failed to turn them out satisfactorily, failed because they did not give 
proper attention to the selection of the proper wools. Given the proper 
wools for making a good level thread, and ordinary care exercised in the 
details of manufacture, any well-equipped mill should be able to turn out 
a reasonably perfect piece of twist covert. No mill should undertake to 
make them unless its card room is well equipped, card machines well 
clothed, doffer rings in perfect condition. The mules should be also in 
good condition. No loose collars or collar-boards. No wornout steps. Feed 
rolls should be true and smooth, any creases will make imperfect yarns. 
Spindles bands should be renewed, and every endeavor made to get equal 
tension on every spindle. Spinners must not be allowed to pick up and 
piece ends after the carriage is out, as such would make a heavy thread 
whenever it is done. . 

An Old Adage. 

There is an old adage in Yorkshire, "That stock well carded is half 
spun and yarns well spun are half woven, while cloth well woven is 
half finished, and goods well finished are half sold." This is quite true in a 
general sense, as any concern turning out satisfactory goods, right up in style, 
fabric, and finish, having few imperfections or allowances, is soon recognized 



278 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

by the trade as a dependable and satisfactory concern to deal with, and 
buyers will naturally seek to place their orders with a mill having a repu- 
tation for delivering satisfactory goods, well finished, and practically free 
from imperfections of weave or yarns. The above adage is very applicable 
to the manufacture of these twist coverts. Stock well carded, that is, 
free from twits, a nice even roping will give a round, smooth yarn, that is 
necessary to procure an even twist for this cloth. The stock requires care- 
ful selection. For the white yarn the wools should be "pick lock" the 
finest selections from XXX Ohio or similar wools. The colored yarn may 




14-Cunce Double and Twist Union Co vert. (Piece-Dyed.) 

be from the next grade, but it is not economy to lower the quality very 
much. The best is none too good to spin to 7 run and 10% ru.i yarns. The 
scouring of the wool and the dyeing requires careful attention and good 
judgment on the part of the overseer. The wool must not be matted or 
felted in the slightest, but should come out of the kettles as lofty and 
open as uncolored stock. Cold water should not be turned on the 
stocks when washing off at the dye kettles, but the change should be grad- 
ual. Run about half the hot liquor off, then turn on the cold water, which 
will bring the temperature to about 130 degrees, pole the stock in this 
water, and then run off. If the stock is properly handled in this depart- 
ment the carder should have no trouble in getting good results, but if the 
stock is matted or felted in the dyeing, it is practically impossible to ob- 
tain good results in carding, and without good carding it will be very un- 
satisfactory in succeeding departments, and the final result will be dis- 
couraging. 

An Open Question. 

Presuming now that the yarns are well carded, spun, and bobbins ready 
for twisting. The best method to combine the two threads for twisting is 
to spool the yarns on separate spools, 20 threads to a spool. Some manu- 
facturers prefer spooling the yarn on one spool, one thread white, one thread 
colored, alternately. It is an open question as to which is the better method, 
but whatever method is used, it is certainly the best policy to spool the 
yarns previous to twisting, as there is a more even tension to the threads, 
and consequently e more even twist. After twisting, every bobbin should 
be inspected, and any uneven twisted bobbins should be sorted out and 
laid aside. The twist yarns being now ready for spooling previous to 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 279 

dressing, all guide and tension hooks should be examined, and if any 
hooks or guides are cut and worn, they should be replaced as any inequal- 
ity in the tension of the threads will cause imperfections. The reed in the 
loom should also be examined for uneven dents, as wide or narrow spaces 
will cause streaks or reed marks, which cannot be overcome afterwards. 
Examine carefully from weave room, mark all imperfections of weave or 
yarn, and have them corrected by an experienced sewer. Goods may be 
fulled in the grease, using a good bodied soap free from cheap adultera- 
tions. It will take from 2 to 2% hours to full, it is also necessary to 
overhaul the pieces during the process of fulling. Take and snap out the 
cloth to prevent mill wrinkles, which are caused by the goods running 
continuously in the one fold. Goods should be fulled in length at least 6 
per cent or 8 per cent, which will give them a full clothy handle. After 
scouring, they should be given a wet gigging on old teasels or on a fibre 
brush gig, and rolled up wet over night. Extract and dry next day at 57 
inches wide. Shear, steam, brush, press medium pressure. They may then 
be given a cold water shrink and plate Dressed. 

Layout for men's wear double and twist Warp yarns 

yarns: 1 thread 7 run, left twist, dark shade. 

3,800 ends. 1 thread 10% run, left twist, white. 

14%/4 reed. Twisted 24 turns per inch, right twist. 

65%" inside listing plus 1" for listing = Take-up in twisting 8% = 3.9 runs. 

66%" over all. CALCULATIONS. 

Draw straight on 10 harness. 3.800 ends 3.9 runs twist = 9.74 oz. 

2 harnesses for listing 66%" X 54 picks = 3,591 threads 

Weave twill to right. -£- 7 run filling = 5.13 oz. 

54 picks. 

7 run yarn, spun left. 14.87 oz. 

10% weaving take-up = 1.48 oz. 

□liaiDHDI 

SSqiBSSRSS Loom weight 16.35 oz. 

■"■■§■"■■8 Finished weight 14 oz. 

mamammamam 16.35 oz. + io% waste aiiow- 

DBpygDMng ance = 18 oz. @ 70c. per lb., 

■ ■IjSVS 5 B + 6% shrinkage = $ .S372 

■QMQBQBBa Fine quality picklock wool. 

mamnmmamam Manufacturing costs: 

54 picks @ $.7600 + 6% shrink- 
age 4366 

Extra expense, fine spinning and 
twisting, l%c. per oz. over cost 
of single yarns 1500 



Mill cost $1,423: 

No mill should undertake to make this class of goods unless it is 
equipped with more than the ordinary number of cards as compared with 
the number of looms. As the production from the carding room of 7 and 
10y 2 run yarns is necessarily slow, the ordinary carding equipment would 
not be sufficient to keep all the looms running, hence lessened production 
of woven goods, and consequently increased overseers and general charges. 



WOOLEN NOVELTY DRESS GOODS 

The latest style news from Paris that homespuns, tweeds and coverts are 
being worn by the smartest women who attend the French races is of 
special interest to sales agents and manufacturers. The fabric illustrated 
here is a Scotch novelty dress goods v ery applicable to the above sugges- 
tion; also to the combination suit which is a coat of one design or fab- 
ric and a skirt of another, such as a black worsted cheviot, with a skirt of 
a plaid pattern in tartan colorings. This novelty combines the homespun 
fabric with the fancy tartan colorings, and is a very effective novelty. 
This fabric, so far as the writer knows, is not yet placed on this market, 
and there is a good opportunity for d omestic mills to get out a similar 
cloth for the dress goods trade. 



mo 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



The yarns are heavy and somewhat uneven, made from a coarse wool 
for the dark stock, while the fancy color is made from a medium fine wool. 
The yarns are in two tones of color, but instead of being a mixture, the 
color comes on the thread as an elongated slub or blotch. There are about 
three inches of a black ground thread and then about iy 2 to 2 inches of 





Yarns Used For the Scotch Novelty Dress Goods. 



a white or fancy colored slubbing twisted into or around the black ground 
thread, which gives, when woven into the cloth with various color combi- 
nations, a very rich and striking appearance. The cloth is plain weave, 
having few ends and picks per inch. 

The Colorings. 
The colorings so far as shown are in the following combinations and 
patterns, but other patterns can be made by using ordinary dark shades of 
yarn without any blotch effect as a ground cloth, and using the fancy blotch 
yarn to form patterns, a cloth dressed and woven four threads black ordi- 
nary yarn, four threads fancy blotch yarns, both warp and filling, would 
show up effectively. Other and larger plaid effects could also be made. In 
fact, there is no limit to exploiting this novelty yarn, as indicated in the ac- 
companying table: 

A Few Coloring Combinations: 

WARP. 

All black and white Blotch. 

All brown and white Blotch. 

{2. Black and Tartan blue Blotch. S 2. 

\2. Black and old gold Blotch. \2. 

$2. Black and white Blotch. S 2. 

\ 2. Black and old gold Blotch. 1 2. 

All black and white Blotch. ' { 2. 

(2. Black and white Blotch. 1 2. 

} 2. Black and old gold Blotch. f 2. 

\ 2. Black and Tartan blue Blotch. 1 2. 
X 2. Black and Tartan green Blotch. 

All these colorings show up very effectively; they are bright and 
snappy, especially the combinations of fancy Scotch tartan colors. Some 
manufacturers may think that these novelty yarns are difficult to make, and 
require expensive attachments for the cards. A few attachments are, of 
course, necessary, but they can all be made by an ordinary mill master 
mechanic. The overseer of carding can generally plan out the necessary 
details of work to produce these novelties once he is supplied with the 
idea of how to go about it. The stock for these yarns is prepared and 
picked as any ordinary lot of stock — that is, the dark shades or ground 
work of the thread — and is put through the first and second breaker 
cards the same as a regular lot, and all the novelty effect is added at 
the finisher card. Over the finisher card there is erected a framework for 
the purpose of carrying a special spool, made the full width of the card, 
and if the card is taking off 20 ends each spool — 2 spool card — this special 
spool is filled with 40 ends of heavy slubbing or roving of any fancy color 
which is desired to be placed onto the ground thread in the form of a 
blotch. (The wool of this blotch is a finer grade than the ground 



FILLING. 
All black and white Blotch. 
All brown and white Blotch. 

Black and Tartan Green Blotch. 

Maroon and crimson Blotch. 

Black and Tartan Green Blotch. 

Maroon and crimson Blotch. 

Black, and white Blotch. 

Black and old gold Blotch. 

Black and Tartan blue Blotch. 

Black and Tartan green Blotch. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 281 

thread.) The special spool is made to revolve slowly by any suit- 
able drive from a worker shaft or feed roll, and there is placed under- 
.neath this spool another roll covered with narrow strips of card clothing, 
placed so that they will catch the slubbing as it is delivered and transfer 
it to the last worker of the card. 

This roll also turns slowly, and between it and the slubbing spool there 
are feed rolls which carry the slubbing and prevent the small roll from 
bearing off irregular lengths of the slubbing. Any master mechanic can 
easily arrange the speed movement and the necessary mechanism to con- 
vey the slubbing from the spool through the feed rolls to the second roll, 
having the strip of card clothing, so that the fancy colored slubbing will 
be deposited regularly on the last worker, and from there to cylinder and 
doffer rings. 

Careful measurements are necessary to make sure that the slubbing 
will be delivered about the centre of each doffer ring. If it happened to be 
deposited on the cylinder in such a way that it would be at the edge of the 
ring, the chances would be that the top doffer would get more of its share 
of blotch slubbing and the bottom doffer would be minus its share. Any 
master mechanic in co-operation with the carding overseer should be able 
to plan out this appliance and have it in successful operation in a few 
days of experimenting and work. 

Another Method. 
Another method of making blotchy yarns is to pick and card the colors 
separately until the stock is through the second breaker card, and in the 
form of heavy slubbing wound on the old style side drawing rolls. The 
Apperly feed will have to be taken off the finisher card and replaced with 
a creel or spool stand to hold at least 40 spools if the card is taking off 
? twpnty-p.nd roving spools. 

It is necessary also to make a g aide to be placed close before the 
feed rolls. This guide is made with a solid hardwood base, having small 
upright pieces of wood, dovetailed into the base, and so arranged that the 
space between these guides will come exactly in line with the centre of 
the doffer rings. This guide may be likened to a huge comb, having about 
li inches space between each tooth. Tt is quite a bit of work to get this 
guide board properly spaced. The simplest way is first be sure your dof- 
fer rings are placed correctly, and properly spaced to cover the cylinder. 
Then take the base of guide and place it in front of top doffer, and close 
to the wire, and mark on it the exact space of each top doffer ring. Then 
do the same with the bottom doffer. Tf this is done correctly, it will be a 
comparatively easy operation to dovetail the guide fingers in their proper 
places, so that the space b'tween ea^h finger guide will correspond to the 
centre of the doffer rings. 

The side drawing spools are then placed in the creel stand in alternate 
colors, each color having a space of its own in the guide, and if the guide 
is correctly made and placed properly in front of the feed rolls, the top 
doffer will take practically all of one color, and the bottom doffer will take 
the other co'or. Now to get the blotch or mottled effect, the doffers are 
caused to vihrate endways by a vibrating motion which can be bought 
from any maker of cards, or can be m lie in any machine shop at slight ex- 
pense. Suppose you have one side drawing of black and one of white 
placed alternately in the guide, the ton doffer hlack and bottom doffer white. 
* T C"" vibratp the doffprs the width of the rings and you will see the mot- 
tled roving at once. The top doffer will move over and strip off the white 
stock for an instant, then move back to the black, both doffers acting to- 
gether, thus giving a continuous delivery of black and white roving 
ready for spinning into yarn. This method will make a very fine mottled 
yarn, similar in appearance to the first-mentioned method, but th cut- 
off from one color to the other is not so pronounced, as, by the movement 



282 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

of the doffers, the two colors intermingle first, and the yarn will show for 
an inch or so a black and white mottled effect. Then as the doffers move 
over to the full width of the traverse movement, the yarn will show al- 
most all white, and as the doffers begin the backward movement the col- 
ors will again mingle into a mottled effect. Then all black will follow. 
In the first-mentioned process the blotch color is deposited where it has 
little chance to get mixed up by the card with the ground color, and the 
blotch is, therefore, more pronounced in effect. 

Mock Twist. 

Very rich novelty yarns can be made by this second method by moving 
the feed guide, so that each strand or color will split on the rings and 
each doffer ring will carry half of each color, making what is called mock 
twist. It has every appearance of twist yarn, but the tone is softened, the 
fibres of the two colors blending together, and not showing the same defi- 
nite sharpness of outline which distinguishes real twist yarns. 

In the manufacture of this mock twist the doffers are run in the usual 
way. No vibration or traverse movement, but they are given an intermit- 
tent motion, which makes bunches or blotches on the roping, which after 
being spun show up in very striking effects. This blotchy effect may also 
be produced by an intermittent feeding arrangement, whereby the feed rolls 




Scotch Novelty Dress Goods. 

are stopped for a brief period, and then started again. This has been ac- 
complished by breaking out one or more teeth in the driving gear operat- 
ing the feed rolls. The same effect has been produced by pulling wires out 
of the doffer rings. This is rather expensive unless you have an old set of 
rings, which are good enough for this work. 

Pull out the wires on each edge of the rings for an inch or more, leav- 
ing a narrow strip of wire in the centre, then leave above the same spa°e 
of the ring the full width, and pulloutas before another inch, and so on un- 
til that ring is completed. Do the same with all the rings of that doffer. 
The other doffer rings are done the same, but the doffers have to be so set 
in reference to each other that the wide space in the rings of one doffer 
will lap over the narrow space of the other. This is 
necessary, as otherwise the card cylinder would not be kept clear, and the 
result would be a discouraging mess. These suggestions will be sufficient to 
show any carder how he can produce many novelties in yarns, and it ia 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 283 

always the mill and the man behind it which keeps in the front rank 
by getting out new ideas that attract the Olivers, who in turn keep the 
spindles and looms busy. 

There are many other novelties in yarns an., mixtures that may be pro- 
duced in the card room, and which will be taken up later in another ar- 
ticle treating on other fabrics. Thesenovelty yarns are not confined to 
dress goods, but are equally applicable to men's wear and boys' suitings, 
but, of course, the colorings would have to be made in suitable combina- 
tions for that trade. 

Stock mixture: 

60% coarse wool for ground shade @ 35c. 

per lb. 
40% medium fine wool for Blotch @ 54c. 
per lb. 

Cost per lb., In blend, 48c. 

CALCULATION. 

14.74 oz. ex. loom + 15% waste al- 
lowance = 17.3 oz. 

17.3 oz. @ 3c. per oz = $ .519 

Manufacturing cost: 

16 picks @ iy 8 c == .180 



Layout: 
900 ends. 

1% run warp, Blotch yarn. 
Keed 6%/2. 
69" inside listing plus 1" for 

70" over all. 
Plain weave. 
16 picks per Inch. 

Warp: 

1% run, right twist. 

Filling: 

1 % run, right twist. 

900 ends 1 % run 


listing = 


70 X 16 = 1,120 — 1% run... 


= 7.40 oz. 


Plus 10% weaving take-up.... 


13.40 oz. 
= 1.34 oz. 


Loom weight 

Finished weight, 12 oz. 


14.74 oz. 



Mill cost $ .699 



In the spinning of these novelty yarns it will be necessary to allow 
at least 2-3 draft. Yarns are spun fairly hard twist to give the crisp 
handle to the goods. When burling the pieces do not break or curl off the 
knots, but pull them through onto the back and leave them on until after 
the pieces are fulled, scoured and dry. Full to hold woven length, but do 
not hair up or felt. Take out at 56 inches in width. Scour dry at 57 inches. 
Back burl, taking off all the knots. Shear off any long and straggling hairs. 
Press firm. Goods to finish 54 inches inside lists. 



COTTON MIXED CASSIMERES 

In these days of keen competition manufacturers are compelled to 
devise all sorts of combinations of stock in order to produce cheap goods, 
and by skilful manipulation in the blending of the different grades en- 
deavor to make the cloth appear of a much better quality than it really is. 
Cheap goods and adulterations of stock always go hand in hand; 
they are inseparable, one being the cause of the other. 
For some years past there has been a persistent cry in the trade for 
something cheap, and the manufacturers have been forced into striving 
to see who can make the cheapest and most attractive goods at a price, 
and while the trade and the public have demanded cheap goods, they al- 
so call for style and fabric. 

If anyone has the idea that goods, if cheap enough, will sell irrespec- 
tive of style, let them try offering goods a little off the popular trend of 
colorings and fabric, and they will quickly learn that goods, however 
cheap, must possess attractiveness in both style and colors. There are 
always many grades of cheap goods on the market. For instance, cot- 
ton warps with an extremely low-grade shoddy filling, also all shoddy 
goods, which are usually tender and of poor weaving qualities. Experi- 
ence has proved, and again will prove, that goods of an extremely low 
grade are a poor investment for the consumer. 



284 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

The English manufacturers in Yorkshire, the home of the shoddy 
goods, can give our manufacturers points in the putting together of ex- 
tremely low-grade woolens. They have special facilities for turning out 
such goods, at a far less proportionate expense than the American manu- 
facturer, so much so that they could take the refuse that is usually thrown 
out by the domestic mills, and make it up into attractive goods, and the 
present prospects are that our markets will be flooded with this worthless 
shoddy goods, which, instead of being of any aid to clothing the working 
man will be a great detriment. 

In Yorkshire they can take such low-grade sweepings and mil] fly in 
combination with the cheapest of mungo that the resultant thread is so 
poor that it cannot be woven unless there is a fine cotton thread twisted 
around it to hold the short fibres together. Yet this cloth is sightly, it 
handles well, is made up in attractive mixtures, and looks stylish enough 
to deceive the elect. To keep out this showy but worthless class of 
goods by any means would be doing no injustice to anyone, even from 
the consumer's point of view. 

The Fabric Illustrated. 

The fabric we have here illustrated is not a low-grade shoddy cloth, 
lacking both in strength and wearing qualities, but a fabric made out of 
good, strong fibres, well constructed, and which will wear as long as an 
all-wool piece of goods, although it may not retain its attractiveness so 
long as an all-wool cloth, owing to the percentage of cotton in the mixture. 
The colors are not so fast, but, compared with an all-wool of similar con- 
struction, this cloth, as it is placed on the market, is not any injustice to 
the consumer, but rather the reverse, giving him an attractive and service- 
able suiting at a low cost. 

There are several fibres with which the manufacturer may adulterate 
his goods in order to reduce the cost of the stock, but the fibre that is in 
greatest use to-day is that of the cotton plant, which plays an important 
part in the manufacture of cheap cassimeres, dress goods, flannels and 
overcoatings, not only in fancy goods but in piece dyes, even worsted 
cloths, which are generally supposed to be made out of long-stapled wools, 
are in the cheaper grades adulterated with cotton. Cotton is usually about 
one-fourth the cost of wool, and can always be procured in any quantity. 
It is a clean, strong fibre, and in the right proportions will always give a 
good, serviceable cloth. There is a mistaken idea that exists in the minds 
of the consumers that a percentage of cotton mixed with the wool and 
shoddy detracts very much from the wearing quality of the goods, and 
should therefore be avoided. 

No doubt this idea originated from dealers and salesmen advertising 
their goods as "free from cotton and guaranteed to boil out," thus put- 
ting a ban on cotton mixed goods, while, as a matter of fact, many of the 
cheap goods "warranted to boil out" are not such good value for the con- 
sumer as a cotton mixed piece. This is well known to manufacturers 
and to most of the clothing dealers, and many dealers who formerly would 
not handle cotton mixed cloths are now doing so, and even give them the 
preference over a low grade of shoddy goods, as they have recognized the 
fact that cotton mixed goo^s are stronger and give better service than 
the latter grade. 

In the successful working cf cotton and wool mixtures a great deal 
depends upon the preparation and blending before the operation of card- 
ing. If the mixture has been imperfectly prepared and blended, no 
amount of skill in the carding can produce a nice clear yarn. Different 
men may, of course, employ different methods to bring the same results, 
and while giving the following methods of preparing and blending the stocks, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 285 

the writer does not mean to assert that his method is the only prop- 
er and correct way of preparing such mixtures. 

In the first place, a good staple cotton, the coarser the fibre the bet- 
ter, is the best for fine mixtures, especially if it goes into any fancy mix- 
ture where there is danger of specks showing in the goods. A good qual- 
ity of carded cotton is none too good for such mixtures, but for solid 
colors, as white, slates, blacks, brown, etc., it is quite safe to use a good 
grade of peeler comber waste, free from nibs. This is as good as card- 
ed cotton for such goods, and can be bought for about 10 per cent less 
than the price of raw cotton. Good results can generally be obtained by 
using about 10 per cent of a good staple wool in the blend, which helps 
to carry the cotton and shoddy, if any, and for the balance it is best to 
select a short staple wool or noil, free from burr. Carbonized wools are 
the best to use. The small percentage of good staple wool will give good 
results in carding and spinning, as it knits together the short fibres and 
gives a larger production with less waste in manufacturing. There will 
be fewer "break downs" in the side drawings in card room and much 
less "piecing up" in spinning, which, of course, will increase the produc- 
tion but will also make a more perfect thread, and, consequently, fewer im- 
perfections and allowances in the finished cloth. The short wool and 
noils used in the blend have more points or ends than long wool, and 
those points are brought to the surface in the process of finishing, and give 
the cloth a softer and more woolly handle. 

Preparing and Blending. 

Much of the success of our best manufacturers is the result of the 
care and intelligence displayed in the cleaning and mixing of the stocks 
and the selection of the stocks used. This applies to the high-grade, 
fine woolens equally as much as to the low-grade cotton and shoddy mix- 
tures. A good burr picker is an absolute necessity. It was formerly 
thought that a burr picker was only necessary to clean burry wools, but 
it is a necessary adjunct to eve,ry picker room on all kinds of stocks, 
as by its use the stock is thoroughly opened and cleaned, for there is a 
strong suction fan attached to all burr pickers, which will draw out all 
dust, dyestuffs, etc., leaving the stock clean and open for subsequent op- 
erations. 

If • the shade of mixture allows for it, the cotton should be dyed to the 
predominating shade of dark color of the mixture, as dyed cotton will not 
show up so strongly in a fabric as undyed raw cotton. For white and light 
shades, where it is necessary to use white cotton, better results can be 
obtained by coloring a proportion of the cotton a bluish stain, which should 
be fast to a moderate fulling. This gives the color a softer effect, more 
like a wool white, as a large percentage of white cotton in any mixture 
always gives an unnatural whiteness to the goods, showing even to the 
inexperienced purchaser that it contains a large percentage of cotton. 
Using 10 or 15 per cent of this bluish stain will' overcome the cottony 
whiteness and greatly improve the appearance of the goods. 

In many grey mixtures, such as flannels, it is a good plan to use 
a percentage of a dark blue wool or shoddy along with the black, which 
will brighten up the shade, and at the same time, counteract the tendency 
of black cotton to turn a rusty or a greenish shade on continued exposure. 
In the darker fancy mixtures the best results can be obtained by dyeing 
the cotton to the darker colors in the mixture, and where there are small 
percentages of fancy shades always dye them from the wool or shoddy, as 
the wool fibres will show on the face, because in the process of fulling, 
the wool fibres naturally work to the surface and show up effectively, 
whereas in cotton a small percentage of a fancy shade would be dead and 
lustreless. 



286 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

All dyed cotton should be run through the burr picker, which will 
clean it well and open up all lumps, making it free and in an open condi- 
tion for mixing evenly with the wool. In blending the mixture previous 
to running it through the mixing picker, place a layer of the cotton first 
on the floor, then a layer of shoddy, then a layer of wool. This will allow 
of the ©il emulsion being sprinkled on the wool with little chance of any 
oil getting onto the cotton. Beat the emulsion well into the wool with a 
long stick or a heavy bamboo rod. Continue laying the blends down as 
mentioned until the entire batch is down, care being taken that none of 
the emulsion gets onto the layer of cotton, because if it gets wet it is im- 
possible to card it out clear. Wet cotton is sure to card into small specks. 
Run the batch three times through the mixing picker, and in order to 
insure an even mixture some one should mix the stock in the bin as it is 
delivered from the picker, as the lighter cotton fibres will tend to sep- 
arate from the heavy shoddy and wool. It requires constant care to get 
an even mixture in such a combinatic n of stock. 

Carding. 

No definite rules can be given here about setting the machine, as so 
much depends upon the stock and condition of the cards that it is impos- 
sible to lay down set rules to govern the carding of these mixtures. The 
most important points are to see that the cylinders and workers are work- 
ing true in relation to each other, to keep the wire well up, having a 
good, clean point, setting Lll parts sufficiently close to comb the stock out 
gradually without breaking it, and as the stock proceeds forward in the 
machines the workers may be set closer to the cylinder in order to make 
a good, clean roping. Run the fancy close to keep the cylinder clear and 
sharp, and if it throws too much fly reduce the speed or give the wire 
less pitch. Another thing to note in the carding of cotton mixes is that 
the cotton fiores will take the point off the wire more quickly than an all 
wool, and there is also more danger of a hook being made on the wire, 
caused by the cotton cutting a small crease on the wire just underneath 
the point. Unless this is noticed it will make poor carding and imper- 
fect roping. 

The temperature of the room is also of importance in car-ding cotton 
mixtures. If the room is cold it is next to impossible to get good results, 
as a cold room generates more electricity in the stock, and every carder 
knows the trouble it causes, especially in the finished card. A warm, hu- 
mid atmosphere is always best, and the temperature should run 75 de 
grees at least. 

Spinning. 

To a casual observer it would not seem of much importance how the 
thread is drawn in spinning, but all practical and experienced manufac- 
turers know that it is of paramount importance. In the manufacture of 
fine woolens and close finished goods it is necessary to have a smooth, 
clean and strong yarn, having a "skin" to it. Every spinner knows how 
to accomplish this, and he should always draw such yarns accordingly. 
This will lay all the fibres parallel with each other, giving a smooth skin 
to the yarn, but in the manufacture of cotton mix yarns a soft and fuzzy 
yarn is required, therefore, the roping is made finer at the cards, so that 
the yarns may be spun to the required size without being drawn too 
much. It just needs sufficient drawing to straighten out the short cotton 
fibres, which will lie more to the centre of the thread, while the wool, not 
being drawn to its full stretch, is by the centrifugal force thrown out to- 
ward the outside of the thread. This will give the fleecy character of 
varn. so necessary to the successful manufacture of cotton mix goods, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 287 

and cloth made from yarns so treated in spinning will handle 50 per cent 
better than goods made from yarns which have been drawn to the full 
stretch. 

This is an important point and worthy of close attention by every man- 
ufacturer, whether running on cotton mixes or fine all wools. The va- 
rious fabrics and finishes require different handling of the yarns, in or- 
der to insure a perfect finish and the best goods. A little experimental 
work will soon determine the accurate amount of drawing and twist to 
put into yarns for different fabrics and stock mixtures. 

It is also of importance not to twist cotton mix yarns too hard, as 
the cotton fibre takes the twist more quickly and will make a hard, wiry 
thread, if too much twist is put in. Twist warp yarns just enough so that 
they will weave well and filling yarn with enough twist to follow the 
shuttle without breaking. A well-known superintendent, experienced in 
the manufacture of this class of goods says "he puts in as little twist in 
his yarns as he dares to," and then instructs the spinner to take out one 
hole of twist, by this method he is always sure of getting the yarns spun 
soft enough. 

Weaving. 

In the weaving department, or perhaps more properly in the designing 
department, considerable experience is necessary on this class of goods in 
order to lay them the correct width in the reed to to et the best results 
in fabric and finish. If the goods are too wide, necessitating long fulling, 
they will finish up hard and board y, and if too narrow, they will look 
raw and cottony. No definite rule can be laid down as to the proper width, 
as it depends entirely on the percentage of cotton in the mixture, the 
amount of twist in the yarn, the number of ends and picks per inch, and 
the weave. There are so many factors that it is impossible to give any 
definite width to lay in the loom. Nothing but experience and close ob- 
servation of different weaves and cloth structures will guide one in this 
important part of cloth composition. We must remember that cotton has 
no fulling properties, and the cloth cannot be set very wide in the reed. 
We must also remember that each thread, both in warp and filling, occupies 
a certain space according to the size of the yarns, and the number of in- 
tersections in the design, and while in all-wool goods in a heavy fulled 
cloth it is possible to crowd yarns together a good deai, we cannot crowd 
cotton mixed yarns too closely, as the goods would feel as hard and stiff 
as buckram when the ends are overcrowded. Filling yarns should always 
be spun finer than the warp yarns, as this will balance the pattern better 
and make a nicer piece of goods. 

Finishing. 

In the finishing of goods in any grade it is an important point to pre- 
serve all the colors in their original purity and brightness. Nothing so mars 
and detracts from the selling value of a piece of goods as dull and muddy 
colors. Having all the colors bright and snappy is often the success of 
a line, and is of great assistance in the selling. If properly handled in the 
fulling room it is not necessary to scour these goods previous to fulling. 
This statement presumes that the stock was properly handled in the dye- 
house, and that a wise selection was made of the dyestuff used, but if 
reasonable care is exercised in the process of dyeing, together with prop- 
er handling at the fulling mills, such goods may be safely fulled in the 
grease. However, if a mill is using bought shoddy in the colored state, all 
such colors should be thoroughly tested to see if they are stainless when 
fulled along with the white cotton, and if such shoddies show any stain 
on the white, then the goods should be scoured out before fulling, but it 
will be necessary to see that the soap is of sufficient strength and body 



288 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



to saponify the grease and to keep it so until the goods are fulled and 
washed off. It is a good plan to watch the goods carefully when running 
in the mills, and to know that the soap is "showing life" all the time. If 
the soap becomes dead, that is, if the alkali is not strong enough to keep 
the grease thoroughly saponified all the time, then the dirty sludge, full 
of dye stain, may set on the goods and stain the colors beyond redemption. 
Eternal vigilance is the key to success in the finishing room. 

After fulling, the goods should not be allowed to lie on the floor for 
any length of time, but, if possible, should be at once transferred to the 
washer and well rinsed off with warm water, and then given a slight soap 
bath, along with a quart or two of ammonia. This will bring up the suds 
in a snow-white foam, proving that the goods are clean. Always rinse off 
the soap with warm water, and be sure that the soap is all out of the 
goods before turning on the cold water, as the latter will set the soap in 



pi st % '. > r4 - ir * fi % te> ft "sf * ' : * 4r flip 4 %> . : 

■ '■"■■';■•;'' ■■•'; '•.-'■ ' s "■■■■.''. ■', - : i ;: ^ ; " '■■; - - -■■% ; • '"> \ 



af*tfr|tf j|x 



. 

*tl*ti#|.' d bid *ia«.! 



Cotton Mix Fancy Cassimere- 

the goo-ds, and especially so if the water is hard, containing more or less 
lime in solution. It will not only set any residue of soap in the goods 
but it will form an insoluble lime soap which is almost impossible to get 
out by any after treatment, and any soap left in cotton mixed goods will 
render them stiff and clammy to the feel, while if thoroughly rinsed, they 
would appear soft and woolly. 

It greatly improves the handle of these goods if they can be given a 
few runs on a wire napper before fulling, say two runs on face and one 
on back, not to raise much or any nap, but just enough to scratch the sur- 
face and soften it. Then the subsequent operations of fulling and scour- 
ing will increase the softness and enhance the appearance. 

When drying such goods see that they are thoroughly extracted first, 
and do not dry at too high a temperature, as too hasty drying will give 
them a harsh and stiff handle, yet they must be thoroughly dry when 
run off the machine. Shear on face, but not too close, cut off long fibres 
only, and leave all the fine bottom to give softness. Give a run on brush, 
but very little steam, as any dampness in such goods at time of pressing 
will cause them to feel stiff and hard. Press lightly, and give a very 
light steam on face as the pieces are going onto the roll. Leave on roll 
until next day. 

Success in manufacturing this or any other kind of goods depends 
principally on economy in production. Always aim to have the stock good 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



289 



enough to carry its own manufacturing waste, as carding and spinning 
soft waste should never be allowed to accumulate. It is a sign of bad 
management both in the superintendent and the carding overseer, and 
should always be used up in succeeding batches of the same shade and 
grade of goods, and in the case of odd mixed lots and colors, they can 
always be dyed black and put into lots' or batches of the same grade of 
goods. 

No manufacturer to-day can succeed and keep in the front rank in 
any grade of goods if he is content to have his goods just the same as his 
competitors. Contentment and success are incompatible and cannot join 
hands. The man who is always trying to improve, either in quality or 
style, will come out ahead, while the contented man will be forced out of 
the race, and will wonder how it is that the other man is having such good 
luck to keep his looms running all the time. It is simply the fulfillment of 
a natural law, "the survival of the fittest." 



Layout for Cotton Mixed Cassimere: 

2,560 ends. 
10/4 reed. 
64" inside list, plus 1" for list. 

over all. 
42 picks per inch. 

Warp yarn: 

4% run, right twist, soft. 

Filling yarn: 

4V& run, right twist, soft. 



Stock mixture for white: 

60% white peeler comber waste 

@ 12c = $ .0720 

= 65" 10% white fine wool carbonized 

@ 54c = .0540 

15% white fine noil carbonized 

@ 40c = .0600 

15% white fine shoddy @ 30c = .0450 

Cost per pound $ .2310 

Stock mixture for black: 

50% fast black cotton @ 12c = $ .0600 

15% fine black wool @ 54c = .0810 

35% fine black shoddy <§) 14c... = .0490 

Cost per pound $ .1900 



CALCULATIONS. 

^. 2,560 ends 4% run = 6.00 oz. -f 10% 
weaving take-up = 6.60 oz. 
65" X 42 picks = 2,730 — 4% run 
= 6.06 oz. + 10% weaving 
take-up = 6.66 oz. 

Loom weight 13.26 oz. 

Finished weight 11% oz. 

6.60 oz. white yarn -4- 6% waste 
allowance = 7.21 oz. @ $.2310 
per lb = $ .1041 

6.66 oz. black yarn + 10% waste 
allowance = 7.40 oz. ® $.1900 
per lb = .0879 

Cost of stock $ .1920 

Manufacturing cost: 

42 picks @ $.0088 = $ .3696 

Mill cost $ .5616 

Warp pattern: 

2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. Lavender fancy 4 run, right twist. 
1. White mercerized cotton 2/26s. 

1. White 4*4 run, right soft twist. 

2. Black 4% fun, right soft twist. 
2. White m. run, right soft twist. 
2. Black i-Vt. run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. White iY* run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 



2. Black 4Yi run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. Black 4*4 run, right soft twist. 
1. White 4^4 run, right soft twist. 
1. Black iy& run, right soft twist. 
1. White 4% run, right soft twist. 

1. Black 4*4 run, right soft twist. 

2. White 4^4 run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4*4 run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4^4 run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. White 4% run, right soft twist. 
2. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. White 4^4 run, right soft twist. 
1. White mercerized cotton 2/26s. 

1. Lavender fancy 4 run, right twist. 
1. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 

64 threads in pattern 
5 patterns. 



320 threads in section. 
8 sections. 



2,560 ends. 

Filling pattern: 

1. white 4% run, right soft twist. 
1. Black 4% run, right soft twist. 

42 picks per inch. 



290 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



maammaaaamnnmuam 

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□DBBDDBaaBB QBBD 

BBuBBLOBBL-LjLBBljU 

BD_aaBDL.BaaBBuaa 
oaaBnaaDDBBDaaBa 
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BaaBaaaaaaDDBaaa 
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MELTONS 



Some one has said that meltons are made in the finishing room, and 
in a sense this is true, as in this fabric a great deal depends upon the 
correct handling in that department, but in order to get a proper foundation 
for the finisher to produce the right fabric and handle, there must be a 
proper cloth structure and also an intelligent selection of the stock. 

If these two essential things are not right, there is no known process 
of finishing that will make a good melton, but given the right blenr< of 
stock and a proper cloth construction, then a good, practical finisher who 
understands the handling of meltons, will have no difficulty in producing 
the goods. 

Unless a melton cloth is properly constructed, there is bound to be se- 
rious trouble in the finishing. It requires a great deal of fulling to get 
the necessary close felted face, and it is only by a heavy shrinkage, both 
in length and width, that you can get this close felt on the goods, and it 
is owing to this heavy shrinkage that great care and practical experience 
is necessary in order to make a properly constructed piece of goods. 

First of all, there has to be the right selection of stock, and a blend 
which will full readily and felt into a close face. T! blend requires a 
proportion of fine, medium-length staple, also a short, fine wool, so that 
it may knit more closely and firmly together in fulling. Stock must be 
free from burrs. Carbonized wools are always the safest to use, and if 
properly handled in carbonizing, it will not detract from its fulling prop- 
erties. 

Yarn Sizes. 

Second, the yarns must be of the right size in their relation to the 
weave and the weight of the finished goods; also the number of ends 
per inch must be considered, because if the size of yarns used is not in 
the proper proportion to the number of ends per inch, that is, if there 
are more ends per inch for the warp and filling than will be- side by side 
in one inch when the goods are fulled, then there is more danger of full- 
ing mill wrinkles in the pieces, also in heavy-weight, low-grade goods there 
are apt to occur "splits" or "cracks," as they are called in England. These 
cracks will occasionally develop in any heavy fulled cloth through lack 
of moisture, when the pieces are almost up in width, but the chief cause 
is too heavy setting in the warp ends. When the limit of compression is 
reached, and an endeavor is made to force the goods an inch or more 
narrower, the cloth will get so stiff and hard that "splits" are almost sure 
to appear. As mentioned above, this applies more to the low-grade, 
heavy-weight goods. 

There can be quite a latitude allowed in all heavy felted cloths, as 
the yarns when felted together will allow of considerable compression. The 
fibres of one thread will mingle and felt together with another thread, both 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 291 

in warp and filling, and thus it allows of a heavier setting than would be 
the case in other goods. There is a limit, however, beyond which it is not 
safe, and if the finisher endeavors to force the fulling, these "splits" are 
almost sure to develop, and the finisher will usually get all the blame for 
the damaged goods, when in reality it is caused by faulty construction of 
the fabric. Not every piece that is set too heavy will develop these 
"cracks," as the amount of moisture and the temperature of the pieces in 
the fulling mill may be in such perfect condition that they will full to the re- 
quired width without developing "cracks," but there is a latent element of 
danger in too heavy setting that will cause such damage to which all de- 
signers and superintendents should give special attention and see to it that 
all such heavy fulled cloths are constructed so that there will be the least 
possible danger of damages occurring in fulling. An ounce of prevention 
is better than a pound of cure, and there is no cure for a piece full of "mill 
cracks." 

There is a wide range of weights in melton cloths, running from 
13 to 22 and 24 ounces and even up to 32 ounces per yard, and this article 
will consider the practical points of manufacturing a light, medium and 
heavy weight melton cloth, giving a layout of each. 

13-Ounce Melton. 
Here is the layout of a light-weight melton which has 1 been used a 
good deal for fine spring coatings made in Oxford and Cambridge greys, 
also in various shades of piece dyes. 

2,880 ends. CALCULATIONS. 

i^ 3 . re . e /- ,. 4. , o« f i- *• oo» 2 >880 ends 4% run = 6.40 oz. 

SO" inside list, plus 2" for listing = 82" S2 „ x 44 icks 6 run = 6 . o oz. 

> over all. Plus 6% = 0.75 oz. 



Warp yarn: Loom weight 13.15 oz. 

4 V& run, right twist. 

Filling yarn: 
.6 run, left twist. 
Draw straight on 8 harness. 
Weave plain cloth. 
44 picks. 

To finish this cloth 13 ounces per yard it will have to be fulled in 
length to hold at least 16 per cent. Let us now analyze this construction 
and see if it will allow of the necessary shrinkage in fulling without com- 
ing too near tr 3 danger limit. 

2,880 ends fulled to 55 inches inside list. = The warp yarn 4% runs = a diameter of 

52. 4. threads per inch. 1/85 of an inch. 

44 picks fulled up 16% in length = 52.4 The filling yarn 6 run = a diameter of 1/98 

threads per inch. of an inch. 

The mean diameter of both warp and filling will be 92, which means 
that 92 threads will lia side by side in one inch without being compressed. 
As this cloth is woven plain weave, it will allow of 46 threads warp intersect- 
ed with 46 threads filling per square inch when finished, and as the cloth 
construction shows that there are 52.4 threads warp and filling per square 
inch, you will see that before the cloth can be fulled up to 54 inches in 

. width and 16 per cent in length there must be a compression of 12^ per 
cent on the yarns. 

Let us again figure it another way: 2,880 ends warp divided by 46, 
the number of threads of 4% run warp and 6 run filling, can 
be woven into a plain cloth weave without undue compression. At 
a matter of fact, it would not be possible to weave woolen yarns of these 

■ sizes so closely together, but that is the number of threads which can 



292 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

be laid side by side in one inch. 2,880 divided by 46 equals 62 6-10 inches 
in width that the cloth would be without any compressing or felting to- 
gether of the yarns. The cloth is to finish 55 inches inside of list. 62 6-10 
inches minus 55 inches equals 7 6-10 inches of compression or felting to be 
put into the piece, which is equivalent to 12 J per cent, and is about all 
that would be safe to attempt in a plain weave. If it were a weave with 
fewer intersections it could be fulled up a good deal more without any 
danger. This piece of goods as laid out will take almost a whole day in 
fulling to get it up to the required width. 

The Wool Used. 

In making yarns for this cloth it is necessary to get the very finest 
quality of pulled wool for the white percentage of the mixture, and in 
laying down the blend in the picker room, a 5 per cent white mixture is 
somewhat difficult to lay down evenly, so that the mix will be uniform 
throughout. The best method is to take 20 pounds of the body shade and 
lay it down in a thin layer on the floor, then take the 5 per cent of white 
and spread it over as evenly as possible, then run it all through the mix- 
ing picker twice. By this method you get 25 per cent of the blend to 
mix with the other 75 per cent, which is not a very difficult task. This 
will give a nice, even blend. 

In. making a 1 or 2 per cent mix it is best to lay down 9 pounds of 
the body color with the 1 per cent white, and run that through the mix- 
ing picker twice. Then add to that another 20 pounds of body color and 
mix it as before, adding to it the balance of the percentage of body color. 
By this method you are practically sure of getting an even mix in your 
batch. Warp yarns should be spun with a good firm twist, as a plain weave 
is usually hard on the yarns. The filling yarn is given a medium twist. 

When woven, the pieces must be carefully burled and all knots re- 
moved. The burling tables should be covered with tin or zinc, which 
makes a smooth surface, and all knots are readily detected by the burlers 
when thej pass their hands over the cloth. It is best to give a double 
burling, once over a table and once over a perch, where the operator can 
look through the piece toward the light from a window. 

It requires a good body soap to full these goods, and of sufficient al- 
kali strength to saponify all the grease and keep all grease, dyes, etc., in 
suspension during the process of fulling. The pieces will require consid- 
erable attention during the fulling, and should be overhauled frequently 
to prevent mill wrinkles. When the pieces are about 58 to 59 inches in 
width, and shrink in length about 14 per cent, take them out, scour thor- 
oughly and extract. Then put them onto a wet gig and give them a few 
runs on the face. This will loosen up any long fibres not felted down, then 
put on the shear and crop without drying, shearing off all loose fibres, but 
leave the close bottom nap or felt. Put back in fulling mill and full up to 
55 inches inside list, and the necessary shrinkage in length. Some fin- 
ishers prefer to dry the goods previous to cropping, and while it is not 
necessary in regard to the finish, it has an advantage if the goods have to 
lie over any time before the second fulling. After the second fulling is 
completed, wash out yarn, using ammonia in the soap bath to insure a 
thorough raising and washing out of all the soap. Extract and brush yarn 
on wet brush. Dry at 56 inches, inside list. Steam brush before shearing, 
giving several runs on shears. Press firm, and leave on roll over night. 

22-Ounce, High-Grade Melton. 

Let us now consider the structure of a heavy-weight melton made 

from all fine wool with no adulteration. This layout and weave have been 

in the market for many years as a standard high-grade melton overcoating, 

and as the weave is a double cloth in the warp, with a single cloth filling, 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 293 

it is possible to put a good many more ends in the warp per inch than in 
the filling. The maximum ends per inch in warp are 72, without any com- 
pression in fulling, and 56 per inch in filling. The yarn calculation shows 

4,800 ends. 4% run filling, left twist. 

4 run, right twist. 50 picks per inch. 

15.4 reed. Diameter of warp yarn = 1/80 of an inch. 

80" inside list, plus 2" for listing = 82" Diameter of filling yarn = 1/85 of an 

over all. inch. 

that this cloth will come from the loom 231 ounces per yard, and as it 
will lose at least 20 per cent in fulling and scouring, the piece will have 
to be fulled up 6 inches per yard, which equals 16 2-3 per cent in length. 

Formula to find shrinkage: 

Multiply loom weight by the per cent clean weight; multiply by 36" (yard); 
divide by ounces wanted, which will show the shrinkage wanted per yard. 

In this case the loom weight is 23.25 ounces, and is estimated to lose 
20 per cent of weight in finishing; 20 per cent of 100 equals 80 per cent clean 
weight. 

Formula: 

23.25 X 80 X 36 



22 oz. X 100 



This means that there must be a shrinkage of 6 inches per yard. 

Structure analysis: — 4800 ends divided by 54 inches finished width will 
equal 88 warp threads per inch, and 50 picks per inch woven, and shrunk 
in length 16 2-3 per cent will be equal to 60 picks per inch finished, and as 
stated previously that 72 threads is the maximum warp and 56 picks 
in the filling, it shows that there must be a compression or felting together 
of the warp threads of 18 per cent, and in the filling 6 2-3 per cent. Figuring 
it by the second method as outlined in the 13-oz. melton, we find that there 
has to be 12 2-3 inches of compression or felting in the width, and as the 
cloth is double warp, that is a face warp and a back warp, there will be no 
trouble in fulling to the required width. If you examine the weave chain, you 
will note that the filling goes under three threads and over three of the 
warp, showing an open weave which allows of considerable fulling in width. 

The weave for 22-oz. Melton. 

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Manufacturing and finishing particulars same as the 13-oz. melton. 

32-oz. Fine Ail-Wool, High-Grade Fabric. 
This layout is a standard fabric made by one of the finest worsted and 
woolen mills in the country, whose cloths have always been held up as par 
excellence in fabric and finish. The aim of this mill has been to put on the 
market a melton cloth equal to the famous Carr melton, which stands at 
the head of the melton cloths in England. This cloth shows a large num- 
ber of ends, and is set wide in the loom, necessitating a long fulling. The 
construction is somewhat different from the usual way, in that the filling 



Face weave. 




Back weave. 


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harness twill. 




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harness twil 


Warp face. 




Filling face. 


Cloth woven 


twill to 


right. 



294 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



yarn is spun %-run heavier than the warp yarn, while in almost every 
other case the filling is spun finer, and is generally accepted as being the 
best method of construction. The reason for reversing the usual method 
was the desire to put into the filling stock quite a percentage of fine Aus- 
tralian noils to produce an extra heavy felt on the goods. If the filling 
naa been spun finer it would not have been possible to put in so much ot 
the fine noils, but with the heavier yarn it is permissable, and at the same 
time there was less twist put into the yarn to retain the necessary 
strength. The warp yarn was spun from a fine quality wool, with a small 
percentage of noils, making a strong yarn, which was necessary to in- 
jure good weaving, as the picks called for were nearly all that were pos- 
sible to put into the cloth at the loom. 



5,320 ends. 
14%. 4 reed. 
91%" inside list. 
93%" over all. 

Warp yarn: 

4 run, right twist. 



Filling yarn: 

3% run, left twist, spun soft. 
60 picks per inch. 



plus 2" for listing = 



Loom weight 32 oz. per yard. 

Finished weight 32 oz. per yard. 

In order to finish this weight it is neces- 
sary to shrink the piece 20% in length. 

5,320 ends -f- 54" finished = 98% threads 
per inch finished. 

60 picks + 20% shrinkage in length = 75 
threads per inch finished. 

4 run yarn = 1/80 of an inch in diameter. 

3% run yarn = 1/75 of an inch in diam- 
eter. 



This gives a mean diameter of 1-79 per inch, which shows 
that in a plain weave 39.5 threads warp and filling 
could be put in a square inch of cloth without undue com- 
pression, and as the weave used is a double cloth warp and filling, it will al- 
low of this heavy setting of the warp. At first glance one would say 
that it had almost reached the limit, and that it would be extra hard fulling 
in width, but you will see by the analysis of structure that, owing to the 
fewer threads per inch in filling, it permits of a closer compression of the 
warp yarns. 

The Finished Cloth. 

As above noted, the finished cloth shows 98% threads per inch 
in the warp, and the mean diameter of the yarns will allow of 39.5 threads 
in a single cloth plain weave per inch, which would equal 79 threads in a 
double cloth weave, while in the filling there will only be 75 threads per 
inch in the finished cloth, which is four picks under the limit, even with- 
out any compression of the threads. 

The above will show that the warp yarn will have to be compressed 
in the fulling 20 per cent, or, to express it in inches, it means 13 1-3 
inches of compression or felting in width. If the number of threads per 
inch in the filling were equal to the threads per inch of warp, it would 
not be possible to get this amount of fulling on the goods, and it is this 
fact that permits of the cloth being fulled to the required width. 

Note the face and back weaves. You will see that the warp yarns are 
floated 3 up and 1 down on face, while the back weave is the face weave 
reversed. This weave allows of the warp yarns lying close together, as the 
filling intersections are few. 

•Complete weave on 16 harness. 



Face weave. 


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Back weave. 


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Weave for 32-oz. Melton. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 295 

Manufacturing and finishing particulars same as the 13-oz. melton. 

It is possible, of course, to construct a much cheaper grade of mel- 
ton than these two latter heavy-weight cloths by using shoddy in the 
blend, and spinning heavier yarns. This would call for a change in cloth 
structure from a double to a single cloth weave, which will be taken up 
later. 

13-oz. MELTON. 22-oz. MELTON. 

COST CALCULATIONS. COST CALCULATIONS. 

2,880 ends 4% run warp = 6.*0 oz. 4,800 ends 4 run warp = 12.00 oz. 

82 X 44 = 3,608 6 run filling... = 6.00 oz. 82 X 50 = 4,100 -r- 4% run fill'g = 9.11 oz. 

Plus 6% take-up = .75 oz. 



21.11 oz. 



Loom weight 13.15 oz. Plus 10% take-up = 2.11 oz. 

13.15 oz. plus 8% waste allow- 



ance = 14.3 oz. Loom weight 23.22 oz. 

Finished weight 13 oz. 23.22 oz. plus 8% waste allow- 

14.3 oz. fine grade wool @ 66c. = $ .5899 ance = 25 - 27 oz - of stock. 

Plus 16% shrinkage in length... = .0943 Finished weight 22 oz. 

. „„.„ 25.27 oz. -(- 16 2/3% shrinkage in 

* - bS4J length = 30 oz. @ 66c. per lb.= $1.2375 

Manufacturing cost: Manufacturing cost: 

44 picks @ $.0086 = $ .3784 50 picks @ $.0080 = $ .4000 

Plus 16% shrinkage in length... = .0606 Plus 16 2/3% shrink'ge in length= .0666 



Mill cost $1.1232 Mill cost $1.7041 

32-oz. MELTON. 

COST CALCULATIONS. 

5,320 ends 4 run warp = 13.30 oz. 

93%" X 60 picks = 5,625 -*- 

3% filling = 16.00 oz. 

Plus 10% take-up = 2.95 oz. 



Loom weight 32.25 oz. 

Finished weight 32 oz. 

32.25 oz. + 10% waste allow- 
ance = 35.83 oz. 

35.83 oz. -4- 20% shrinkage in 

length = 43.00 oz. 

43 oz. fine wool and Australian 

noils @ 66c = $1.7737 

Manufacturing costs: 

60 picks @ $.7000 = .4200 

Plus 20% shrinkage in length... = .0840 



Mill cost $2.2777 



BROADCLOTHS 

There are always many varieties in quality and weight or broadcloths, 
running from the fine worsted warps, 8y 2 ounces per yard, or even light- 
er, up to 12 to 14 ounces per yard, 54 to 55 inches wide. The lighter 
weights are used for dress suitings and opera cloakings, and the heavier 
cloths for misses' and ladies' spring cloakings and jackets. Of late years 
the worsted warp goods have been the favorite cloth, as there is a crisp- 
ness to the worsted yarn that cannot be obtained in an all-wool spun yarn, 
and this crispness gives a certain character to the cloth which cannot be 
imitated in the wool spun. There is also the question of weight to be con- 
sidered, and if any one attempted to spin wool yarns fine enough to make 
an 8-ounce broadcloth of the same texture as a worsted warp it would be 
too costly a piece of goods, and then it would not have that distinctive 
crispness, for by the combing and drawing in the manufacture of worsted 
yarns it is possible to spin a finer thread out of a given grade of wool 
than can be done by carding and spinning woolen process. 

These worsted warp fabrics require a large number of warp ends, also 



296 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

more picks per inch than an ordinary wool spun fabric. This fact is gen- 
erally understood, that the lighter the weight of the cloth the finer the 
yarn and the more ends per inch warp and filling are required in order to 
produce a fabric lighter in weight but equal in structure to a heavier 
cloth. No mill should attempt to make these goods unless it is properly 
equipped with the necessary machinery for such work. 

In order to compete successfully, it should have modern high-speed 
looms. It is even better if it is equipped with the automatic magazine loom 
for worsteds, which would make it possible for a weaver to run four looms 
in place of two of the ordinary looms. The dressing room must have the 
sizing and drying coils attached to the dressing frames, as these yarns 
must be well sized to prevent chaffing in the loom. The finishing depart- 
ment should have a crabbing machine, and fulling mills built especially for 
light-weight goods, as the ordinary fulling mill, built for the general run of 
woolen goods, is too heavy in the rolls and the cramping boxes are too 
large. 

Delicate Shades. 

A manufacturer must also bear in mind that any mill making these 
delicate shades must be run entirely on white yarns, for if they have 
any colored stocks running in the carding and spinning rooms, or even 
dark colored goods going through the finishing room, it would not be pos- 
sible to keep the delicate shades free from dark colored fly. Mills making 
such goods have found it absolutely necessary to have a department in the 
finishing room entirely separated and equipped with all the machinery nec- 
essary, which is used only on light and delicate shades. There must be 
separate nappers or gigs, carbonizing dryers, brushes, shears, presses, etc., 
as that is the only way to clear shades free from colored fly. 

Equal care must be exercised in the dyehouse — special kettles, trucks, 
extractors, etc., and in some dyehouses the operatives are supplied with 
clean overalls or aprons. This may be considered by some as an extreme 
precaution, but the writer can vouch for its efficacy in preventing many 
soiled spots and stains, as these clean overalls are a constant reminder 
that the goods are easily soiled and require clean hands as well as clean 
clothes on the part of whoever is handling them. 

Layout for 8-oz. Warp Worsted Broadcloth. CALCULATIONS. 

3,680 ends. 3|680 ends l/30s = 3.50 oz. + 6% 

lo.4 reed. take-up . = 3 70 OS* 

70%" inside list, plus 1%" for listing = 72" x 60 p'icks"= " V,32oV 

72" over all. 4,330 40 cut = 5.76 oz. + 6% 

Warp yarn: take-up 5.80 oz. 

1/3 0s French spun worsted. ■ 

Filling yarn: Loom weight .....' 9.50 oz. 

40 cut, white carb. noils, right twist. 

Weave: Finished weight, 8 oz. 

3 harness; twill to left. 3.70 oz. warp + 2% waste allow- 

60 picks per inch. ance = 3.78 oz. @ $1 per lb..= $ .2362 

Listing on extra harnesses. 5.80 oz. filling + 3% waste allow- 
ance = 6 oz. @ $1 per lb....= .3750 

■■Giirjianiin e-i 

DHDHDHDH £ $ ,6112 

■■"■■"■■"■■" ? Manufacturing: costs: 



in«S3SSn5S3B £ 2 l00m work ' 60 p» cks • -28Q0 

3 Harness Twill on 12 Harness. Mill cost $ .8912 

A suitable size for the dressing on this work can be made as follows: 
For 120 gallons of water, 40 pounds dextrine and 80 pounds starch. Place 
starch in cold water and mix thoroughly free from lumps. Mix the dex- 
trine in four pails of water and boil f or twenty minutes, then add the 
starch to the tank while boiling, also add seven pounds glue, previously 
dissolved, stirring constantly while adding the starch and glue. Boil 30 
minutes, and then add one-half gallon of glycerine. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 297 

When woven, these goods must be carefully burled, and any threads 
left out or imperfections repaired by an experienced mender. They are 
then run through the crabbing machine, and left on the roll for some time 
to set, then extracted well, listing tacked together face of cloth inside, and 
are then ready for the fulling mill. 

As previously mentioned, the fulling mill should be a special mill built 
for light-weight goods, having lighter rolls and smaller cramping boxes. 
A good body of soap is required, made from tallow and palm oil. Such a 
soap will make a good felt on the material, and being easy to saponify, 
will scour out freely. The fuller must examine the prices frequently, open- 
ing them out so as to change the folds and prevent wrinkles, and it is a 
good plan when the pieces are about half fulled to take them out and re- 
verse the ends. Full to 56 inches in width, inside of listings, and cramp 
3 inches or more per yard in length. This shrinkage will full out in the gig- 
ging and steaming, and allow the goods to be finished woven length. 

Do not allow the goods to heat up too much when fulling. Regulate 
the doors of the mill so that the pieces feel warm, but no more. The long- 
er they full the better pieces you will get, and a closer feel will be found, 
which produces a superior finish. Scour well, using plenty of warm water 
to insure the removal of all soap. Then transfer to crabbing machine, roll 
up tight, and leave on roll all night. Next day carbonize and neutralize. 

Gigging or Napping. 

The gigging or napping requires care and judgment; a wire napper 
should not be used. Wet gig with old teasles. Do not use any sharp work, 
as this class of broadcloths do not need napping so much as lustering. After 
being gigged the goods should be extracted and cropped, taking off all 
long fibres, but leaving the fine bottom. Give a few runs to insure even- 
ness, and they are then ready for steaming or lustering. Many finishers 
prefer the regular steaming cylinders, giving the goods 10 to 15 min- 
utes each end. The writer prefers oh this class of goods the old process 
of boiling and wet gigging, using stiff brushes on the gig instead of 
the teasels. An up-and-down gig is used, having a trough built under the 
bottom roll, and so arranged with water and steam pipes that it can be 
kept full of boiling or cold water as desired. There should also be a 
perforated pipe placed along in front of the top roll, so that cold water 
can be forced upon the cloth before it is rolled up. By boiling, wet gigging 
and cooling off occasionally it is possible to get a good permanent lus- 
ter on the goods. 

Dyeing. 

When entering any kind of napped goods into the dye kettle, it is im- 
portant to see that the direction of the nap lies away from the rolls and 
not toward them. That is, when the roll draws the cloth out of the dye 
liquor the nap should lie so that the stream of water will run with the 
nap. If it were to run against the nap it would rough it up and produce a 
crimpy or waved appearance. After dyeing, the pieces are taken back to 
the wet gig to be straightened out, and the nap laid well. Extract and dry 
at 56 inches. They are then given a final shearing. Steam, brush and press. 

As the yarns for this class of goods can all be purchased ready for 
manufacturing into cloth, the warp yarns on spools ready to set into the 
dressing frame, and the filling all spun on tubes or bobbins ready to 
weave, the labor cost of manufacturing is consequently low. There is 
only the dressing, drawing-in, weaving, finishing and dyeing, shipping and 
office expenses, and if the mill has part of the preparatory departments, 
such as carding and spinning, standing idle, because of the yarns being 
bought for weaving, for all or part of the looms, this fabric should not be 



298 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

charged up with any overhead expenses or burden of such departments, 
nor any items which cannot be directly charged against the manufac- 
turing cost of the fabric. 

Layout for 10-oz. Wool Spun Yarn: CALCULATIONS. 

3,200 ends. 3,200 ends 6V 2 run = 4.92 oz. 

Reed 13.3. 83%" X 42 picks = 3,507 7 run.= 5.00 oz. 

82" inside list, plus 1V 2 " for listing 



83y 2 " over all. 9.92 oz. 

Warp: Plus 8% take-up = 0.78 oz. 

6% run, left twist. 



Filling: Loom weight 10.70 oz. 

7 run, right twist. _,. . , , ... , „ 

_ Finished weight, 10 oz. 

Weave: 

3 harness; twill to right. Shrinkage in length (finishing) 12%. 

42 picks per inch. 

This layout was a standard broadcloth for many years until the wor- 
sted warp cloth became so much in vogue, but for a medium weight this 
makes an excellent cloth. It requires a very nice quality of wool to spin 
down to 6y 2 and 7 run yarns for two- loom work. Warp yarns should be 
smooth and level, free from "twists" and bunches, as nothing will dis- 
courage a weaver so much as these twists or soft places in the warp yarn, 
as in either case it means broken ends, and it almost invariably happens 
that one broken thread will entangle others unless the loom is stopped 
at once when a thread breaks, and when a weaver is trying to run two 
looms with twitty yarn it is impossible to see all broken threads in time 
to stop and prevent a tangle of threads. Few weavers will waste their 
time on such work, but will seek employment somewhere else where the 
yarns are good enough to insure a reasonable production and good wages. 

This fabric not only requires a fine quality of wool, but also a good 
felting wool, and a blend of 12-month s Texas with a percentage of fine Cal- 
ifornia or fine fall Texas would make a good felting combination. In the 
foreign wools a good Cape wool is an excellent wool for broadcloths 
or any felted fabric. 

Selection of Wools. 

If there is a proper selection of wools there is not so much danger of 
twitty yarns. Permit me to say here that the carder or spinner is not 
always responsible for such yarns, as a few long, coarse fibres in the 
wool will make more twits than carders and spinners ever dreamed of. 
Carders will occasionally make twitty roping, and spinners will also make 
twits even when the roping is all right, and it is something that great care 
should be taken to guard against. There is very often an unfortunate feel- 
ing of enmity between a carder and spinner, and the production suffers 
greatly by it. These two departments are so closely linked together that 
there should be cordial relations between the overseers, but if any an- 
tagonism creeps in between them there is bound to be more or less friction, 
and if it so happens that the superintendent is not thoroughly practical, 
and can place the blame where it belongs, the breach is sure to widen, 
and production will suffer both in quantity and quality. 

A cranky carder can make it very disagreeable for a spinner, and a 
cranky spinner can ruin the work of a good carder if he so chooses. If 
any friction is known to exist between these overseers the superintend- 
ent's duty is to warn both men that if they do not co-operate for the 
good of the mill, and show it by the results, then one or both should be 
discharged. Personal animosities between overseers must be at all times 
subservient to the best interests of the employer, because no business can 
attain its full success unless it is conducted on the broad principle of 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 299 

cordial relationship between the heads of departments and the management. 
These remarks apply generally to the manufacture of all classes of work, 
and are not confined to the subject of this article. 

The roping for the yarns of this fabric should be of such a size as 
to give the spinner about half draft, and if drawn properly should make 
a good, smooth yarn. As the warp yarns have to be sized in the dressing, 
it is not necessary to make a hard-twisted thread. The softer it is the bet- 
ter fabric it will make, as the fibres will felt together better if not twisted 
too hard, but the twist must be sufficient to make good weaving, and the 
sizing will prevent any chaffing of the yarns. 

Filling Yarns. 

In the spinning of filling yarns, keep the top and bottom spools of rop- 
ing separate. Never mix the bobbins of tops and bottoms for filling in any 
class of goods, no matter how closely the yarns may reel in size. Follow 
out this plan in the weave room also, and the finisher will not have to 
worry over uneven fulling and cockled goods. 

Pieces should be tacked at the listing before fulling. This will pre- 
vent rolling of the lists. Use a good body of soap made of tallow and 
palm oil. Do not allow the goods to get too warm in the fulling mills. 
Keep them just warm enough to full and felt well. If they are too wet 
when fulling, the pieces will full but will not have that close felt so necessary 
to produce a good broadcloth, and unless you get the felt the goods will 
look thready and raw. Full 55 to 56 inches in width, so as to hold 12 per 
cent shrinkage in length when finished. Scour well and send to carbon- 
izing room. 

GiggLng. 

A wire napper may be used for the first gigging. Begin lightly and do 
not force the work. Pieces should be reversed after the felt is well brok- 
en, and the napping continued until it shows a clear bottom in the 
goods. Transfer to the cropping shear, and crop until you get down to a 
close, even nap, then put on a teasel gig for final napping, after which 
the pieces are ready for the steaming to produce luster. Steam for 15 to 
20 minutes each end. The length of time can only be determined by the 
steam pressure used and the luster desired. 

The goods are now ready for the dyehouse. After dyeing, give a few 
runs on wet brush to straighten out and lay the nap dry at 56 inches. 
Shear again, so that the nap will not rough up, steam and brush. Dampen 
with dewing machine and let the pieces lie on roll for some hours be- 
fore pressing. Give a good pressing, and leave on roll until the next day. 

COST CALCULATIONS. 
Loom weight of goods 10.70 oz. 

plus 10% waste allowance. ... = 11.9 oz. 
11.9 oz. fine wool @ 64c. per lb..= $ .4760 
Plus 12% shrinkage in length.. = .0571 

Manufacturing cost: 

2 loom work, plus 12% = .2600 



Mill cost $ .7931 

Weave chain same as the worsted warp 
broadcloth, but the twill must run to the 
right. 

This weight of broadcloth is generally used for children's and misses' 
spring or fall coats, also for ladies' cloakings. Some clothing manufactur- 
ers will use a 12-ounce cloth, as it can be bought cheaper, but it does not 
make up so well as the 14-ounce cloth, being more sleazy it does not 
keep its shape so well. It is dyed into many fancy shades, as scarlet, 
bright reds, tans, brown, light and dark blues, etc. The stock used is 



300 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



about the same quality as the 10-ounce cloth, but as the yarns are spun 
heavier it is possible to use quite a percentage of a fine noil, and a fine 
California wool may be used instead of the 12-months Texas, which would 
help to cheapen the stock somewhat. 

The manufacturing processes are practically the same as the 10-ounce 
broadcloth, and as this cloth is 4 ounces per yard heavier, it is even an 
easier cloth to finish than the 10-ounce. One of the greatest difficulties in 
making all face-finished goods in the fancy shades is to overcome the ten- 
dency to have uneven shades, goods shading from side to centre. If the 
piece shows darker on the sides than in the centre it will usually be found 
that the gigging has not been even, owing to the listing being tighter or 
not so tight as the body of the piece. If it is tight, the gig will dig deeper 
into the cloth and raise a heavier nap. The same thing will hap- 
pen if the listing is loose, as the cloth will then flap or strike against 
the teasels and show a heavier nap, but it will not be so continuous 
and of as even a streak as a tight listing. Similar unevenness may be 
caused in the process of steaming the pieces by letting the steam blow out 
at the listings before it comes through the body of the goods. The fin- 
isher should see to it that the steam comes evenly through the pieces, and 
not have it come first on the edge. This can be regulated by the way that 
the burlap is wound on the steaming roll, and the finisher should give spe- 
cial attention to the steaming of the first pieces, and if it is not right, 
have it corrected at once. 



Layout for 14-oz. Broadcloth: 

3,500 ends. 
Reed 7.4. 

80" inside list, plus 1%" for listing = 
81%" over all. 
Warp: 

4 % run, left twist. 
Filling: 

5 run, right twist. 
40 picks per inch. 

Weave: 

3 harness; twill to right. 

CALCULATIONS. 

3,500 ends 4% run = 7.37 oz. 

81%" X 40 picks = 3,260. 

3,260 -i- 5 run = 6.52 oz. 



Finished weight, 14 oz. 

Shrinkage in length at fulling 16%. 
15.28 oz. + 10% waste allowance 
= 17 oz. of stock. 



Stock mixture: 

25% fine Texas <§> 60c. 
50% fine California @ 
25% fine noil @ 44c. . 



.= $ 



.1500 
,2400 
.1100 



Cost per pound 

17 oz. stock at 50c. per lb = 

Plus 16% shrinkage in length.. = 



.5312 
.0850 



Plus 10% take-up. 



13.89 oz. 
1.39 oz. 



Manufacturing cost: 

2 loom work + 16% shrinkage in 
length = 



Loom weight 15.28 oz. 



.2820 
.8982 



Fancy Printed Designs. 

This article on broadcloths would not be complete unless mention was 
made of the fancy printed design broadcloths. The French and German 
manufacturers turn out very handsome printed broadcloths in very at- 
tractive designs which are often sold to the best trade, and the unwary 
consumer, not knowing the difference between a printed fabric and a fancy 
wool-dyed broadcloth, is attracted by the design, and the magic word "im- 
ported," and pays a big price for the garment. In justice, however, to 
these printed cloths the writer must confess that he has made exposure 
tests of a few patterns of good quality, and in the darker combinations 
the tests were satisfactory, but, of course, not nearly so good as a stock- 
dyed color. The main thing to guard against in the printed cloth is the 
low grades made with cotton warp and shoddy fillings, which are dyed 
with cheap dyestuffs, and which will not stand any exposure tests without 
fading a good deal. 

These printed fabrics are woven and finished in the white the same 
as an ordinary broadcloth, but are usually made from cheaper materials. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 301 

The design is printed by rollers similar to the printing of cotton goods. 
Fancy broadcloths, having a woven pattern, are a semi-piece dye, that is, 
the yarns which compose the dark threads of the design are dyed in the 
wool before carding or spinning with a fast dyestuff which will stand the 
steaming and the cross dyeing. The pattern is woven in the usual way 
in the ordinary woolen loom. The cloth, after being fulled, napped and 
steamed, is then dyed like an ordinary piece dye, the undyed yarns of 
the design being dyed to the desired shade, while the black or dark 
yarns are but slightly affected by the dyes. This method is not very sat- 
isfactory, and the range of designs is very limited. 



BEDFORD CORD FOR MEN'S WEAR 

Double and Twist Goods. 

Bedford cord is used extensively for riding breeches in our 
cities, and even m«re so in England, where it is also used 
by sportsmen for shooting breeches. It is a fabric especially fit- 
ted for harJ service, as it is strong, elastic, and the hard-twisted face warp 
yarn gives it the necessary wearing qualities. This cloth is always madt 
with double and twist yarns for warp in contrasted colors, such as drab and 
white, olive and white and similar tones of color which do not show signs 
of being soiled or of dust very readily. This is one of the reasons why it 
has been such a fashionable fabric with both horsemen and sportsmen. 
These Bedford cords, and, in fact, all fabrics made from double and twist 




16-Ounce Bedford Cord. 

yarns, are hard cloths to produce perfectly, as the least variation of size in 
the yarns before twisting will show up very distinctly after finishing. No 
mill should think of making this class of goods unless it is especially well 
enuipped in the card room. It should also be supplied with good mules, 
twisters, etc. As the production of th ese fine yarns in the carding and 
spinning rooms is necessarily slow, the mill should have extra sets of 
cards and extra mules if it wants to keep its full complement of looms run- 
ning. The ordinary carding and spinning equipment which would keep the 



302 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

looms busy on the average single yarns would not keep more than 60 
per cent of them running on these double and twist yarns. 

The Card Room. 
The card room should also be equipped with balling machines and creels 
instead of all Apperly feeds throughout, which will make more level yarns. 
It also requires great care in selecting the wool to produce a nice even eight- 
run yarn which will spin well and be free from twists. All wools must be 
carefully sorted and the finest picked out to make such yarns. The term 
used in England for such a grade of stock is "picklock" wool, meaning that 
the finest and most uniform locks of wool are selected or picked out of the 
fleece. Sometimes a fine l-30s or l-40s worsted yarn is used for the white 
thread instead of a wool spun yarn, and by this means the manufacturei 
is enabled to run more looms than if he undertook to card and 
spin all the yarns. This would apply to those mills which do 
not have any extra carding and spinning machinery. In the twisting of 
the yarns the best results can be obtained by spooling the threads first 
on spools — 1 thread of dark color an d 1 thread of white — and twisting from 
the spools. This gives much better r esults, the tension on the yarns i^ 
more even, and the added cost of spooling is more than made up for by 
the more perfect twist and also by an increased production from the twist- 
ers. After the yarns are twisted it is necessary to inspect all the bobbins, 
and all irregular or imperfect ones should be laid aside. 

Construction of Fabric. 

The single yarns for twist are first spun on the mule left twist, and when 
twisted are mad® right twist, 22 to 24 turns per inch. Two weaves are here 
given. In weave No. 1 the lift of the harness is somewhat uneven, being 8 
up and 4 down in every alternate pick and the other being 6 up and 6 down. 
Ths weave No. 2 shows a uniform lift of 7 up and 5 down. The cloth as 
illustrated was woven with weave No. 1, as it makes the cleaner cut or 
the two weaves. The four warp threads which form the cord are wov- 
en what is called a warp face, that is, each thread is carried on face over 
three picks before it is stitched down by the fourth filling pick, each thread 
being stitched or held down alternately. The cut is formed by two threads 
single yarn, being woven the opposite of the face threads, while each al- 
ternate filling thread floats under the four cord threads, and it is this thread 
which causes the cord to rise up by the extra contraction in the finishing 
process. Every alternate filling thread being woven plain, is, therefore, very 
tightly woven in with the warp threads, and consequently will not con- 
tract in finishing as quickly as the thread which floats underneath the cord. 

Goods may be fulled in the grease, but it is preferable to scour first and 
dry. Then have the pieces carefully inspected for threads out or imperfec- 
tions and knots which should be removed. Imperfections and ends out 
should be carefully repaired by a competent sewer, then the goods are 
ready f©r fulling. Some manufacturers may think that all this extra work 
will cost too much, but it pays well to have it done before the goods are full- 
ed, as it is often impossible to repair imperfections afterward. An allow- 
ance of one-eighth of a yard each on several imperfections will cost more 
than the extra labor and expense of scouring. Full to 56 inches inside list- 
ing, and dry at 57 inches. Steam brush, shear and press medium pres- 
sure. 

Layout: Pattern: 

4,20» ends. 2. 8 X 8 run twist. 

10-6 reed. 2. 4 run single right twist. 

48 picks. 2. 8 X 8 run twist. 

70%" inside listing plus 1" for listing = 2,800 ends 8X8 ru.n twist 14 

71%" over all. turns right 4- fi% t;ike-ut> r* 

Straight draw on 12 harness. 4.16 runs = 6.99 oz. 

2 harnesses extra for listing. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



303 



1,400 ends 4 run single right 

twist 3.50 oz. 



10.49 oz. 
10.49 oz. warp + 10% weaving 

take-up = 11.54 oz. 

Filling: 

71 X 48 = 3,408 -+- 4% run filling 

= 7.57 oz. + 10% take-up... = 8.32 oz. 

Loom weight 19.86 oz. 

Finished weight 16.00 oz. 

COST CALCULATIONS. 
7.69 oz. 8 X 8 twist yarn + 8% waste 

allowance = 8.3 oz. 

3.85 oz 4 run single yarn + 6% waste 

allowance : = 4 oz. 

8.32 oz. 4% run filling yarn + 8% 

waste allowance = 9 oz. 



Stock used: 

8 run twisting. 

Fine picklock wool @ 68c. per lb. 

Single yarns. 

Fine medium grade @ 56c. per lb. 



8.3 oz. twist @ 6Sc. 
4 oz. single warp @ 
9 oz. filling @ 56c. 


56c. per lb.= .1400 


Manufacturing: 

48 picks @ $.0082. 


$ .8077 
= $ .3926 


Extra, cost, D. and 


T. yarns = .0500 


Weave Chain No. 1. 

BBOOBBBBOQBB 1 
BOBOBOBOBOBO 1 ^ 

iiaaiiiiuDia J E 

OBaBDBaBOBOB 1 , £ 

BBOOHBBBOQBB 1 C 
BOBOBOBOBOBO 1 pi 
BBDGBBBBGGHB 1 rv 
OBOBOBDBOBOB 1 w 


$1.2503 

Weave Chain No. 2. 

HBDBDBOBDOBB - 
BOBOBBBBOGBO- h 
BBOOBDBDBOBB^ £ 
DBOOBBBBDBOBm s 
BBOBOBOBODBB - ^ 

■ a ■■■■: a . - - 

BBOOBOBDBDBB - U 
OBODBBBBOBOa " 



26-OUNCE TWIST OVERCOATING 

A comparative cost calculation between an all-wool fabric and a shod- 
dy cotton mix, both having the same design and structure, follows. This 
is a study in manipulation of fabrics, showing a high-grade overcoating 
made from pure wool by a mill that never uses a pound of any substi- 
tute, and beside this is shown the same fabric structure made by 
another mill out of shoddy, cotton and wool. The reproduction is so 
perfect a copy that it would deceive anyone except a cloth expert. Cer- 
tainly, the purchasing public would not see a difference in the appearance 
of the fabrics, yet the one cloth costs exactly twice as much as the other. 
The particulars and cost calculations of both fabrics are given, also pho- 
tographic illustrations. 

This was a case of unintentional piracy on the part of Mill No. 2, 
which made the low-grade fabric. The mill received the sample from its 




26-Ounce Twist Overcoating. 

selling agent with instructions to reproduce it at a stated price. The mill 
did so, not knowing until several months afterward that Mill No. 1, mak- 
ing high-grade goods, was manufacturing the exact style in their all-wool 
fabric, and the singular thing about it was the fact that the mills were 
within 50 miles of each other and the owners very friendly. 

The selling agent claimed that he received the clipping from a buyer, 
who stated that it was an imported cloth which he wanted to have copied 



M4 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



into a cheap cloth. It is quite possible that these statements were cor- 
rect, that it was not a case of piracy but a coincidence of two mills 
getting hold of an imported fabric through a pattern agency, and both 
reproducing it in their respective grades. Whether it was a case of 
piracy or a coincidence, it was a hard matter to convince manufactur- 
er No. 1 that manufacturer No. 2 did not steal his fabric and pattern, 
producing it in an inferior grade with the intention of underselling him, 
and the old cordial relations were considerably strained for some time. 

Layout and calculations for the all-wool Stock for grey mixture: 

cloth: 10% light blue stain wool, per. lb..l 

2,100 ends, 8%—%—% in dent. i°% T^ite ^ med ; w ° o1 ; \ 56c - 

70%" inside listing plus 1" for listing = 50 % black fine med - w ° o1 > 

71%" over all. White for twisting: 

Draft on 14 harness. ■ Fine med. wool 56c. 

24 P lcks - Black filling: 

DIIDDII H 14 u h 14 Fine med. wool 56c. 

ammamma 13 13 13 is 13 2,100 ends 2% run + 6% take-up 

BSRSBaR 11 WW in twisting - 9.16 oz. 

BnnSBnS 1010101010 2,100 ends 3% run + 6% take-up 

IOIIDDI 99999 in twisting = 5.92 oz. 

E2B5SSS 7 7 7 7 t 8 8 8 8 8 71 %" X 24 picks = 1,716 2% run 

BBSSBSS 6 6 6 8 6 2-ply + 6% take-up in twist- 

DIIDlia b 5 5 5 5 ing = 14.58 OZ. 

DIIDDII 4 4 4 4 4 

□ailDII 3 3 3 3 3 „q fie „„ 

■ nBHnrw ■> 2 2 2 2 * Vi. 

■DDIIDI 11111 Plus 10% take-up in weaving.. = 2.96 oz. 
FRONT. Loom weight 32.62 oz. 

Warp yarn: Finished weight 26 oz. 

2% run, grey mix., left twist. 32.62 oz. woven weight + 10% 

3% run white, left twist. waste allowance = 36.24 oz. @ 

Warp yarn twisted 8 turns right twist per 56c. per lb = $1.2684 

inch. 6% take-up in twisting. Manufacturing cost: 

_.„, 24 picks @ $.0106 = .2544 

J!lllmg: Extra for twisting 32 oz. @ 2%c. 

2% run black, left twist. per lb 0500 

Filling yarn twisted 6 turns right twist — 

per inch. 6% take-up in twisting. Mill cost $1.5728 

This price could be reduced somewhat by using a percentage of 
good noil and worsted waste, but, as mentioned before, the mill never 
used anything but straight wools in all of its fabrics. 



26-OUNCE COTTON AND SHODDY TWIST OVERCOATING 

A Comparative Study. 

These figures show that the low-grade fabric costs less than half 
the high-grade all wool, the manufacturing cost being rated the same in 
both, and the only difference being in the cost of stock. The all-wool stock 
costs $126.84, and the low grade 48.06 cents, a difference of 78.78 cents 
a yard. 

The manufacturing details are practically the same in both fabrics, 
but in picking and oiling the cotton mix care should be taken to keep 
the cotton as free as possible from the oil emulsion, because if cotton 
gets wet it will cause nibs in carding. A good plan is to pick and oil 
the wool and shoddy together, then add the cotton in layers, first a 
layer of wool and shoddy, then a layer of cotton, until the entire batch 
is laid down, running the lot through the picker twice to insure a good 
mixture. 

The mule draft on the all-wool fabric should be y 2 to |, and on the 
cotton mix about 2-3 draft for the twisting yarn and fully that on the 11 
run black filling. Previous to fulling, the cotton mix fabric should be 
given one run on back and two runs on face on wire napper, not to 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



305 



raise a nap but just scratch it well to soften the cloth. Full both fab- 
rics to 56 inches and scour dry at 57 inches. Brush well, shear off any 
long hairs, and press cotton fabric very light with the all-wool medium pres- 
sure. 




26-Ounce Cotton and Shoddy Twist Overcoating. 



Layout: 

2,100 ends 8% — % — % in dent. 

70%" inside listing plus 1" for listing = 
71%" over all. 

Draft and weave the same as the all- 
wool fabric. 

Warp yarn : 

2% run grey mix., left twist, soft spun. 

3 % run white, left twist, soft spun. 
Warp yarn twisted to right, 8 turns per 
inch. 

6% take-up in twisting. 

Filling yarn: 

Black 1% run, right twist, spun soft. 



Stock for 2% run grey mixture: 
10% black cotton peeler comber 

waste No. 1 @ 11 %c — $ 

20% white cotton peeler comber 

waste No. 1 @ 11% c = 

15% white fine med. wool @ 56c.= 
10% white fine med. noils @ 40c.= 
45% black shoddy @ 13c = 

Cost per pound $ 

Stock for 3% run white yarn: 

40% white cotton peeler comber 

waste No. 1 @ ll%c = $ 

15% white fine med. wool @ 56c.= 
45% white fine med. noils @ 40c. = 

Cost per pound $ 



,0113 

.0225 
.0840 
.0400 
,0585 



2163 



0450 
0840 
1800 



Stock for black 1% run filling yarn: 
25% black cotton peeler comber 

waste No. 1 @ 11 %c = $ .0281 

25% black garnetted waste <S> 

24c = .0600 

50% black shoddy @ 13c = .0650 

Cost per pound % .1531 

2,100 ends 2% run + 6% twist- 
ing take-up = 9.16 oz. -f 10% 
weaving take-up = 10.07 oz. 

2,100 ends 3% run + 6% twist- 
ing take-up = 5.92 oz. + 10% 
weaving take-up = 6.51 oz. 

71%" X 24 picks = 1,716 threads 
1% run = 13.75 oz. + 10% 
weaving take-up = 15.12 oz. 

Loom weight 31.70 oz. 

Finished weight, 25% oz. 

2% run grey mixture 10.07 oz. 4- 
15% waste allowance = 11.85 
oz. @ $.2163 per lb = $ .1602 

3%, run white 6.51 oz. + 15% 
waste allowance = 7.23 oz. @ 
$.0390 per lb = .1396 

1% run black 15.12 oz. + 20% 
waste allowance = 18.90 oz. @ 
$.1531 per lb = .1808 

$ .4806 
Manufacturing cost: 

24 picks @ $.0106 per pick = .2544 

Extra for twisting .0250 

Mill cost $.7600 



KERSEYS 



It was stated recently in an article on the manufacture of meltons 
that they were to a large extent made in the finishing room, and while 
that was true in a sense, it is even more so when we consider the 
manufacture of kerseys. There is no fabric made of wool in which the 
process of finishing plays such an important part as in the manufacture 
of kerseys and broadcloths. These fabrics, although known or classified 
as two different materials, are really the same. Broadcloths are light 
and medium weight goods, while kerseys are practically the same cloth 



306 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRIC'S GLOSSARi 

with a heavy backing yarn attached to it to increase the weight, the 
finishing processes being the same in both cases. 

The Better Grades of Kerseys 

are usually made in what is known as a double-plain weave, using a large 
number of ends per inch both in warp and filling. The face and back- 
ing yarns are the same quality and counts, and the fabric is called a 
"through-and-through" cloth; that is it has no backing cloth, and although 
it is a double fabric, the two cloths are so interlaced that it is as solid 
as a single woven cloth. These fine- grade kerseys are laid in the loom 
from 90 to 100 inches in width, and as there is a large amount of fulling, 
both in length and width, it makes a very firm piece of goods, with a 
smooth and velvety nap which will not rough up. These high-grade ker- 
seys are often finished in a dull manner, that is without the steam luster- 
ing. Some buyers may prefer the dull finish and others the luster. 

The medium-priced goods are usually woven with a fine face warp, 
with a coarser yarn attached on the back, two threads face yarn and 
one thread backing. There is no back filling. This is a semi-double 
cloth, and the construction allows of using a cheaper yarn for the back 
warp. The two face warp threads interlacing with the filling yarn make 
a firm and closely threaded face, which enables the finisher to get a 
smooth, well-felted face and to work up a good close nap in the process 
of napping. 

It should be emphasized here that while the manufacture of kerseys 
in any quality is comparatively easy to the experienced manufacturer, 
there is many a snag which a man not accustomed to such goods may 
run against, and which may cause serious loss and also, disappointment in 
the resultant cloth unless guarded against. 

A Fine, Good Felting Wool 

should be used, along with a fine noil and shoddy, but a fine merino or Thi- 
bet shoddy is the best. Many manufacturers use a small percentage of 
fine Texas and California wools, Australian noils and fine shoddy for 
the face yarns and a cheaper stock for the backing threads. A standard 
construction and weave is here given for such goods. 

One of the most important things is to secure the services of a finish- 
er who is thoroughly experienced in handling this style of goods, and 
have the mill equipped with all the necessary machinery for finishing, 
as so much depends upon the fulling, napping, cropping, steaming, etc., 
in the finishing process. A good finisher is one of the essentials neces- 
sary to success. 

It can be said without any fear of contradiction that there is no 
other cloth made where so much depends upon the proper handling in 
the ' finishing as a kersey, and there is no other cloth in which there is 
so much difference between the raw fabric as it comes from the loom 
and the same piece after being properly finished. It comes from the loom 
thready and loose in texture, no luster or life being left in it. It is an un- 
sightly rag of cloth, and to the inexperienced eye it does not seem possible 
to make an attractive cloth out of it. But let a skilful finisher, provided with 
the necessary machinery, commence operations on it and it gradually be- 
comes a cloth of beauty and elegance, fit to clothe the most fastidious 
dresser in the nation. It has firmness and closeness of texture, yet is soft 
to handle, as smooth as velvet and lustrous as silk. All this change in ap- 
pearance comes from the action of soap and water in fulling, and the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 307 

after processes of napping, cropping and steaming, in combination with 
the skill and brains of a finisher. 

In the Fulling of Kerseys, 

or any similar fabric requiring a long fulling, it is necessary to use a 
good, heavy-bodied soap made from tallow and palm oil, and of sufficient 
alkali strength to cut the grease in the goods and to hold it in suspen- 
sion, or, in other words, saponified, during the whole time of fulling. If 
the soap becomes dead, that is if the alkali contained in the soap is 
overcome by the grease in the goods or is neutralized by an acid condi- 
tion of any shoddy in the stock mixture, then the goods will not full, and 
it will be impossible to get that solidity of cloth and thick, close feel so 
necessary for a kersey finish. If the soap, through any cause, becomes 
dead and watery, another piece of similar goods may be run into the full- 
ing mill with the goods already in the machine, which will absorb the 
excess of water, and then a pail or two of a heavier and stronger alkali 
soap may be added to the pieces, which will liven up the soap that has 
been spent, but the safer plan is to take the goods out of the fulling mill 
and scour off the spent soap, extract and dry, then re-enter the pieces 
in the fulling mill, and as they are now presumably clean and free from 
any acids, they can be fulled with a soap that is nearly neutral. 

If a pure tallow soap is used it is extremely hard to scour it out of 
heavy fulled fabrics, some tallow soaps being even harder to eliminate 
than others, owing to the amount of glycerine left in the tallow. Some 
soap manufacturers do not extract the glycerine from the tallow, and 
such soaps are very hard to wash out of the goods. A properly-made soap, 
containing about 50 per cent of tallow and 50 per cent of palm oil is an 
excellent soap for kerseys and meltons, or any heavy fulled cloth, and it 
will scour out readily, unless the water used is very hard and contains 
carbonate of lime or other carbonates which are very apt to set the soap 
in the goods, causing uneven napping and cloudiness in the dyeing. Soft 
water, when it can be obtained, is always the best to use in either the 
finishing or dyeing of woolen goods. 

Soap is very liable to adulteration, and is often mixed with resin, 
silicate of soda, China clay, excess of water and other ingredients which 
help to give it weight. 

A Few Simple Soap Tests 

are here given which may help the manufacturer to determine the quality 
of the soap he is using. The excess of water can easily be ascertained 
by reducing a given weight of the soap to shavings and drying them thor- 
oughly until they lose all moisture. The dried weight will indicate the 
amount of water evaporated, and the difference in weight between the 
original soap and the dried product will be the amount of water. 

If 50 grains of soap is dissolved in a given quantity of water, and then 
a sufficient amount of diluted sulphuric acid or acetic acid is added to 
neutralize the alkali, the tallow or grease will separate from the water 
and float on the top, while the earthy adulterant will fall to the bottom. 
This grease can be collected, dried and reweighed, and the difference in 
weight will show the amount of adulteration. Another method of detect- 
ing foreign adulterants is to dissolve a given quantity of the soap in al- 
cohol, when all the insoluble foreign matter will fall to the bottom of 
the test glass. 

In the napping of kerseys, soft water, if it can be obtained, is always 
preferable. The cloth is put on the napper well dampened, as without 
the presence of water the fibres would break and cause a greater loss in 
the process. As the object of napping is to raise the interlocked and felt- 



308 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

ed fibres, straightening them out on the face of the cloth, the other end 
of the wool fibre being still attached to the body of the cloth, it stands 
to reason that this can best be accomplished when the cloth is soft 
and pliable. That water has this effect on wool can easily be demon- 
strated by the fact that a piece of wet cloth is more easily torn than a 
dry piece, and the hygroscopic properties of wool are such that a piece of 
cloth can without even feeling wet hold as much as 30 per cent of its 
weight of water. This can easily be tested by weighing a piece of cloth 
as it comes out of the hydro -extractor and again after being dried, when 
it will be found that the average piece as it comes out of the extractor 
contains about 30 per cent of its weight of water. 

It has been noted by finishers that goods which are not thoroughly 
clean will not rise on the napper and finish up so well as clean pieces. 
This has been attributed to the grease in the goods preventing the free 
access of water to the fibres, and the result is a fluffy and thin nap. It 
may be noted here that all heavy, fulled goods, after being scoured free 
from soap, etc., should be rolled onto a 

Solid Roll Under Pressure, 

just as they come out of the extractor, and left on the roll for 24 houib 
at least. In England this is called the setting process, and although it 
may appear to many to be a waste of time, it has been proved by practi- 
cal maunfacturers that goods so treated will not lose so much in the sub- 
sequent processes of finishing, and they will feel much better when fin- 
ished than the same quality of goods not set on a roll. 

The object of napping or gigging is to raise the fibres in such a man- 
ner and to such an extent that the surface of the cloth is entirely cover- 
ed with a fur-like nap. This process was formerly done by a machine 
called a gig, which consists of a cylinder filled with slats which are 
closely set with teasels, the burr-like product of a plant. This cylinder 
makes about 150 revolutions per minute, and it revolves in the contrary 
direction to that in which the cloth travels, and as the latter moves slow- 
ly, it offers a surface of great raising power. The amount of contact be- 
tween the goods and the teasels is easily regulated by means of a rachet 
and movable roller. Although the teasel gig is now superseded by the 
wire napper, in the earlier stages of napping, that is in the "breaking in" 
of a piece, many finishers claim that in the last process of napping the 
teasel gig is better than any wire napper, but for the first stages of nap- 
ping the wire napper is almost entirely used, as it is more effective and 
does the work much more quickly. All heavy fulled cloths like kerseys and 
broadcloths are napped wet. 

As there is less waste of fibres and the matted and entangled fibres, 
softened by the water, are more easily combed out, the resultant nap is 
laid down close to the surface. In the ordinary medium grade of kerseys 
the napping is usually all done in one direction, as by reversing the nap 
in goods containing much shoddy it would result in quite a loss of stock, 
but in the higher grades the nap is reversed, and this produces a thicker 
body of nap and a superior finish. When the pieces are napped sufficiently 
they are taken to the cropping shears, still in a wet condition, and the 
nap is brushed lightly by a revolving brush, which lifts up any long fi- 
bres that are cut off, the object being to obtain a close, even nap like a 
piece of velvet. The goods are then put onto a teasel gig, and the nap 
is straightened out again and brushed flat before being put into 

The Steaming Machine. 

The steamer is a machine fitted with two large copper cylinders per- 
forated with many holes to allow the passage of steam and water. The 
cloth is wound tightly onto one of the cylinders, and steam at 40 pounds 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



309 



pressure is blown through the cloth for some time, usually 10 to 15 
minutes, then cold water is forced through the goods to cool them off. 
The cloth is then wound onto the second cylinder, thus putting the end of 
the piece which was outside on the first cylinder inside or next to the 
cylinder in the second steaming. Steam is then blown through, as in the 
first case, and followed by the cold water. This steam boiling and cooling 
sets the cloth and imparts to it a good luster. The goods are now ready 
for the dyeing process, being run in the kettles from 8 to 12 pieces to a 
kettle, care being taken to run the pieces so that the water will be shed 
from them in the direction that the nap is laid. 

The Dyeing Process. 
The drying process is usually done on a machine heated by steam 
coils, the cloth being run onto a link chain provided with fine steel pins set 
about % of an inch apart. This chain carries the cloth through the ma- 
chine backward and forward between the steam heated coils, and delivers 
it thoroughly dry and tentered to the desired width. Many finishers do 
not give sufficient care to the drying of the goods, as they do not realize 
that cloths may be injured by being dried too quickly, especially if the 
cloth is not sufficiently extracted, and if it has been rinsed off in the 
washer with a hard water containing lime, etc. If the drying was done 
by the natural atmosphere not much damage would result from such ac- 
tion, although it would give hardness, but when subjected to an extreme 
heat, with so much superfluous water, the effect is to scald and bake the 
fibres, and burn into them the carbonates contained in the water, which 
no amount of after-treatment can remove. After drying, the goods are 
brushed, steamed and examined for knots and imperfections, sheared again, 
brushed, sprayed and pressed. 



Layout for 30-oz. Medium Grade Kersey: 

Face 2,880 ends. 
Back 1,440 ends. 
Reed 9.6. 

80" inside listing plus 1%" for listing = 
81%" over all. 

Dressed: 

1 end face yarn, 3% run, right twist. 

1 end backing yarn, 1% run, right twist. 

1 end face yarn, 3% run, right twist. 

Filling: 

2% run, left twist. 
36 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,880 ends 3% run warp = 8.86 oz. 

+ 10% take-up = 9.74 oz. 

1,440 ends 1% run warp = 9.60 oz. 

+ 10% take-up = 10.56 oz. 

81%" X 36 picks -f- 2%run = 

10.67 oz. + 10% take-up = 11.73 oz. 



Filling: 

35% fine wool @ 50c... 
65% fine shoddy @ 20c. 



$ .1750 
.1300 



Cost per pound $ .3050 

9.74 oz. face warp -f- 15% waste 

allowance = 11.45 oz.. 

10.56 oz. back warp + 20% waste 

allowance = 13.20 oz. 

11.73 oz. filling + 20% waste al- 
lowance = 14.60 oz. 



Loom weight 



32.03 oz. 



Finished weight 30 oz. 

Shrinkage in length 16% (finished). 



STOCK MIXTURES. 
Face warp: 

40% fine wool @ 50c 

20% fine noil @ 42c 

40% fine shoddy @ 20c 



.= $ 



,2000 
,0840 
,0800 



Cost per pound 



Backing warp: 

25% fine wool @ 50c 

75% fine shoddy @ 16c. 



$ .3640 



.1250 
.1200 



Stock per woven yard 39.25 oz. 

11.45 oz. face warp @ $.3640 per 

pound = $ .2605 

13.20 oz. back warp @ $.2450 per 

pound = .2021 

14.60 oz. filling @ $.3050 per 

pound = .2783 

$ .7409 
Cost of stock, plus 16% loss in 

length = $ .8820 

Manufacturing and charges: 

36 pi<:ks @ $.0094 + 16% = .4000 

Net mill cost $1.2820 

Weaving chain and draft on 16 harnesses 
2 extra for listing. 

naDDDDDB 1« 

S □DBOBDDD 16 

S DDQQDBDB " 

S ■DBDDDDn 13 

* nDD»D«nn 12 
•g maoanama « 

- rmamaaan 10 

■•■■■■ 8 8 

■annana 7 ^ 



Dl 



ID! 



ID 



Cost per pound $ .2450 



■■■■■■ 3 

■ OWMDM 
IHOHID 1 

■■■■□□□□ lurtia, 
DDDa»BBBl 1 ' 18tmg 

FRONT 



310 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



RATI! CLOAKING 



18i/ 2 to 19 Ounces. 

Ratine fabrics for dress goods, cloakings, etc., have been very popular 
for some time, and almost any cloth having a rough, lumpy surface has been 
sold as ratine. The fabric here illustrated has been called one of the best 
worsted filling ratines in the market, being made from a pure luster 
worsted filling, so-called spiral twist. This is an easy cloth to make and 
can be made in any mill having broad looms. The only difficult stage of 
manufacture is in the fulling of the goods, and great care must be exer- 
cised to prevent uneven curl effects such as mill wrinkles. If once these 
are formed, it is impossible to get them out again, and the pieces are a 
"poor second." 

These mill wrinkles are irregular streaks running lengthways, and are 
usually caused by running the pieces too long in the filling mills without 
opening out the folds. Unless the goods are opened out, when filling they 
form into folds or creases, and the pressure of the rolls will soon develop 
these wrinkles, and no amount of after-work will take them out. If no- 
ticed as they begin to form, take the piece and snap it out, in order to 
change the folds or creases, and it is a good plan to reverse the end of 
the piece in the mill, which will tend to prevent any further formation of 
wrinkles. If the goods are too dry in the process of fulling, it has a tend- 
ency to cause wrinkles. Have just enough soap on the pieces so that when 
you take hold of a piece and wring it hard, the live soap will readily show 
up on your hands. 

Another very 

Essential Feature 

in the manufacture of this class of goods is to give strict attention to the 
direction of the twist in the yarns. You will notice in this layout that 
the yarns are made twist to the right, while the twill weave runs to the 
left. If the twill was woven to the left, the curl would not show up so well 
on the face of the goods, and stripe effects are made by weaving herring- 
bone twills, one twill showing up the curl more distinctly than the other. 
Stripes are also made by introducing cords in the warp by weave effects. 
Very good ratine cloths are also made with cotton warps with one pick 
of woolen yarn spun soft and one pick of the worsted yarn. 

In this cloaking fabric the warp yarn is made from medium wool 
combined with mill waste ( r shoddy, carded and spun natural color as 
the cloth is piece-dyed. The filling yarn is a No. 6 worsted spun soft, 
left twist made from imported Lincoln wool and twisted to right a few 
turns per inch on the twister machine. When this yarn is fulled the 
worsted will curl up into small loops or curls on the face of the goods. 
These goods are set open in the reed so that they will full readily. The 
curl effect is produced by the filling and the open setting of the warp yarns. 
If we were to take the same yarns and weave another cloth, set closer in 
reed and having less filling, the result would be entirely different. 

It is almost hard to believe the effects that can be produced in cloth 
by the finishing process, one of the best instances being an ordinary broad- 
cloth, which, as it comes from the loom, is thready and unsightly, meas- 
uring about 90 inches in width, and if placed alongside of a finished 
piece, no one but a practical man would recognize the least resemblance 
between them. The one raw, thready and loose; the other, lustrous, 
velvety and smart, yet the change is effected solely by the amount of 
fulling, napping, steam boiling and cropping. The quality of the water 
also has a great deal to do with the finish of the cloth, more especially in 
fine woolens f\nd worsted goods, as any impairment in the quality is more 
readily detected on fine goods, but whether the manufacturer is making 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 311 

fine goods in fancies or cheap piece- dye goods, it is necessary to have a 
good supply of pure water in order to remove all impurities, such as oils, 
dyestuffs from the goods, and to obtain a bright, smart appearance. 

If possible, all water used in finishing should give a good lather with 
soap. This is one of the most essential qualities, and when it possesses 
this quality it is known as "soft water." Hard water is due to the pres- 
ence of lime and magnesia salt, which decompose soap and destroy its 
cleansing properties. The degree of hardness is usually reckoned by 
what is known as Dr. Clark's soap test, which is made by dissolving curd 
soap in alcohol and making it of such strength that 32 decimeters (a deci- 
meter equals 10 grains of water) will produce a lather when added to 
1,000 grains of water, prepared by dissolving 16 grains of calcic carbonate 
in a gallon of distilled water. 

The soap solution is now poured from a decimeter bounette into a 
bottle containing 1,000 grains of the water to be tested, which is occasion- 
ally agitated, and the soap solution is added until a lather is obtained 
which remains unbroken all over the surface for several minutes. The 
degree of hardness can now be reckoned by Dr. Clark's table, as follows: 



Soap test. Decimeter 
measures required. 


Degree 
Hardness. 


1.4 

5.4 

9.6 

13.6 

17.5 



2 
4 
6 
8 



From this table it will be seen that a sample of 1,000 grains or water 
which requires 9.6 decimeters of the soap solution to be added before a 
lather is formed is 4 degrees of hardness. When water is over 6 degrees 
it is known as 

Hard Water 
and is unfit for scouring purposes until it has been softened by the addi- 
tion of some chemical such as an alkali, preferably potassium in some form, 
or the introduction of ammonia in the scouring bath. The thin scum 
which shows on the surface of such hard waters when treated with soap 
is composed of calcium and magnesium stearates. This greasy paste 
so adheres to the surface of the cloth that it is hard to thoroughly free 
it, unless ammonia is added to the bath, and every mill which has hard 
water should always use ammonia in the scouring bath or overcome the 
hardness of the water by previous treatment. 

The writer would recommend all manufacturers to have a test made 
of the water by any of the textile schools in their neighborhood, and ii 
the proper means are taken to remove any hardness of the water it would 
save them a great many barrels of soap every year, as many millions of 
pounds of soap are wasted every year by using hard water for domestic 
and manufacturing purposes. In the finishing of this ratine cloaking, use 
plenty of warm water when rinsing the soap off in first scour, then add 
more soap to the washer, with a liberal amount of ammonia, which will 
thoroughly saponify the soap, making a good lather, and will bring the 
goods out lofty and bright in luster. 

This cloth is dyed in a 

Variety of Colors, 
black, blue, various shades of browns and olives, fawns, also fancy shades 
for misses' coats. Full to 56 inches wide, scour, extract, and piece-dye 
to shade. Dry to 57 inches, steam and brush slightly to lift any coarse 
hairs on face and shear off, but see that the blades are set high enough 
so as not to cut the curls off. Press very light, and steam on face afterward 
to soften the curl. Goods to finish loom length. 



312 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Layout: 

1,000 ends. 




Reed: 7 — 2. 




71" over all. 




20 picks. 

Woven 4 harness, twill 


to left. 


muam * 

■ ■OD 3 

amma 2 
aamm 1 





Warp stock: 

20% medium wool @ 44c = $ .0880 

40% mill waste @ 8c = .0320 

40% shoddy @ 10c = .0400 



Cost per pound $ .1600 

Stock for 5 run twisting thread is fine 

wool @ 56c. per pound. 
Filling: 

6s lustre worsted. 

5 run wool thread. 

Both of the above are twisted 3 to 4 

turns per inch. 

CALCULATIONS. 
1,000 ends warp 1 run = 10 oz. 

4- 10% loom take-up = 11.00 oz. 



Filling: 

71" X 20 picks = 1,420. 
1,420 threads 6s + 6% take-up in 
twisting and 1,420 threads 5 
run + 10% take-up in twist- 
ing = 10.33 oz. 4- 10% loom 
take-up = 11.36 oz. 



Loom weight 22.36 oz. 

Finished weight 18% oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Warp: 

11 oz. warp -f- 15% waste allow- 
ance = 13 oz. @ 16c. per lb..= $ .1300 

Filling: 

7.09 oz. 6s lustre + 10% loom 
take-up = 7.79 oz. 4- 8% waste 
allowance = 8.4 oz. @ 72c per 
lb = .3780 

3.24 oz. 5 run wool 4- 10% loom 
take-up = 3.56 oz. -f 10% waste 
allowance = 3.95 oz. @ 56c. per 
lb = .1382 



Manufacturing cost: 
20 picks @ $.0110 



$ .6462 



.2200 



Mill cost $.8662 



No allowance is made here for cost of twisting the filling yarns, but 
this cost is offset by the fact that 8.4 ounces of the filling yarn is bought 
yarn, hence the cost of carding and spinning is saved on that amount. 



BLUE MELTONS, GOVERNMENT STANDARD 

Although these goods are called kerseys, they are really meltons, 
both the stock used and the finish being of a melton character, while a 
kersey is known by the smoothness of the weave, no twill showing, and 
there is a wide difference in the finish between a melton and a kersey 
cloth. Both cloths are heavily fulled, and shrunk in length from 18 to 
25 per cent, according to weight and quality of fabric, but from this 
point the finishing processes are entirely different, as the kersey is nap- 
ped and cropped to get a close, velvety nap on the face, then steamed 
to produce a luster, none of which processes is used in finishing a melton 
fabric for the Government. The weave used in all army goods is gen- 
erally the regular 4 -harness twill, the cloth being laid wide in the reed 
to get the necessary amount of fulling. The pieces are shrunk both in 
length and width, which knits the fibres of both warp and filling togeth- 
er, adding considerably both to the strength and weaving quality of the 
goods. 

The yarns are always spun with 

Opposite Twrst, 
that is the warp yarn may be spun left twist and the filling yarn right 
twist or vice versa. This is a common practice in all mills when making 
any kind of goods requiring a heavy felted face, and the reason for so 
doing will readily be seen by examining the following diagrams of warp 
and filling yarns in an enlarged plain weave. It will be noted that when 
yarns are of opposite twists the twist of the warp and filling threads 
lies in the same direction as the threads cross each other, and in 
the process of fulling the fibres interlock with each other more read- 
ily, making a smoother and better felted face, whereas in a fabric made 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



313 



of the same twist warp and filling, the directions of the twist are opposed 
to each other, and suah a cloth will not felt so closely together. 

The Government specifications for these fabrics require a strong sta- 
ple territory fleece wool, grading a good three-eighths quality, and the 
various cloths call for a specified number of threads per inch in warp 
and filling, and must be of sufficient strength to withstand a certain 



M 






^i§ 



^ 



mm 



s* 



^ 



ww//W/Am r m 

Y//W//W/Am/iS 



Di?grams of Warp and Filling Yarns. 

breaking strain, each of which is noted in the different layouts. All goods 
must be indigo dyed in the wool, no adulteration even of waste being al- 
lowed, and this standard is rigidly enforced. The layouts, as given, are 
not arbitrary in regard to size of yarns. Manufacturers ; may change 
the sizes to suit their requirements in manufacturing, but ends per 
inch warp and filling and strength of goods must come up to the specifi- 
cations. 

Finishing of These Goods 

In the finishing of these goods the process is similar 
to an ordinary melton finish. The width from the loom 
will vary according to the weight of the goods, but the average 
width will be about 72 inches inside listing. The pieces should be care- 
fully burled, removing all knots, slugs, etc. Very little sewing is need- 
ed if the weaving is well done, as a thread out or a broken pick will not 
show after finishing, owing to the heavy felted face. The listings should 
be tacked together face inside. Have a good body soap, made of palm 
oil and tallow, and as we want a well-felted cloth we must full slowly. 
Therefore, do not allow the pieces to get too warm in the mills. En- 
deavor to get the shrinkage both in width and length to come equally 
together, which will give you a better felt and a firmer handling cloth. 
It should take from four to five hours in the fulling mill to get the neces- 
sary shrinkage, which in this case will average fully 16 per cent in length. 

When fulling is completed, transfer the pieces to the washer and 
turn on warm water and rinse well. Give a second soaping for at least 
20 minutes, and rinse again with warm water, using ammonia or a so- 
lution of monohydrate to raise any soap that may still be in the goods, 
then finish the rinsing with cold water which will "set or solidify the 
cloth. If the mill has the necessary facilities, it is a good plan to roll 
the pieces on a roll under pressure and let them set for 24 hours before 
being taken to the carbonizing room. This will feed the cloth and Im- 
prove the handle. 

Carbonizing These Goods. 

In carbonizing these goods the acid liquor should test at least 5 de- 
grees Baume, and the goods should lay in the liquor from 15 to 20 min- 
utes, after which they are run through the squeeze rolls and extracted. 



314 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



The temperature of the baking machine should be 200 degrees, which 
will carbonize all vegetable matter in the goods. Pieces should now be 
run through a dry fulling mill, which beats out all the carbonized vege- 
table matter, after which they are neutralized in an ordinary washer by 
giving them a few minutes run in warm water, then adding a good, 
strong alkali water testing 4 or 5 degrees Baume, say three pails of this 
alkali solution to each piece in the water. Test with litmus paper to 
make sure that the acid is neutralized, and, finally, rinse for 20 min- 
utes with cold water. Extract and dry at 58 inches inside listing. 
Shear lightly on back and give them three runs on face, but not too 
low, as the felt is wanted on face. Give a good steam brushing, speck if 
necessary, and press heavy. Before pressing run on dewing machine, 
and let lie a few hours to allow the moisture to penetrate the fibres. 
After pressing, let goods lie on roll until next day. 



16-OUNCE BLUE KERSEY. 

Government Standard. 

Cloth test per square inch: 
Warp, 50 lbs. 
Filling, 45 lbs. 

Layout: 

2,660 ends. 

Reed: 8% — 4. 

7 8" inside list. + 1" for listing = 79" 

over all. 
List. 20 ends each, 2 run white. 

Warp yarn: 

3% run, left twist. 

Filling yarn: 

4 run, right twist. 

Weave: 

4 harness, twill to right. 
46 picks. 

2,660 ends 3% run = 7.33 oz. and 
79" X 46 picks -i- 4 run = 9.08 

oz. + 10% loom take-up = 18.00 oz. 

Listing .20 oz. 



Loom weight 



18.20 oz. 



18.20 oz. + ,5% waste allowance 
== 19 oz. + 12% shrinkage in 
length = 21.6 oz. @ 54c. per 
lb $ .7290 



Manufacturing costs: 

46 picks + 12% = 54 picks 



$.7600 
Dyeing (extra) 



,= .4104 
.0700 



Yarns tested when spinning: 
5.0 thread warp, 46 lbs. 
50 thread filling, 40 lbs. 

18-OUNCE BLUE KERSEY. 

. Government Standard. 

Cloth, test per square inch: 
Warp, 55 lbs. 
Filling, 50 lbs. 

Layout: 

2;760 ends.' 

Reed: 9 — 4. 

7'6 2-3" inside list. + 1" for list. = 
77 2-3" over all. 
List. 20 threads each, 2 run white. 

Weave: , 

4 harness, twill to right. 
44 picks. 

Warp yarn: 
. 2% run, left twist. 



Filling yarn: 

3% run, right twist. 

2,760 ends 2% run warp = 9.61 
oz. and 3,417 ends 3% run filling 
= 9.44 oz. = 19.05 oz. + 10% 
loom take-up = 20.95 oz 

List .20 oz. 



Loom weight 



21.15 oz. 



21.15 oz. + 5% waste allowance 
= 22.28 oz. + 10% shrinkage in 
length = 24.75 oz. @ 54c. per 
lb 



Manufacturing cost: 
44 picks + 10% 

$.8100 

Dyeing (extra) . . 



49 picks 



= $ .8353 



,3969 
.0800 



Mill cost $1.3122 

Yarn tested when spinning: 
Warp, 55 thread, 46 lbs. 
Filling, 50 thread, 40 lbs. 

22-OUNCE BLUE KERSEY. 

Government Standard. 

Cloth test per square inch: 

Warp, 65 lbs. • 

Filling, 60 lbs. 
Layout: 

3,000 ends. 

Reed: 9% — 4. 

81" inside list. + 1" for listing = 82" 
over all. 

List. 20 threads each, 2 run white. 
Weave: 

4 harness, twill to right. 

44 picks. 

3,000 ends 2% run warp, left 

twist .= 10.90 oz. 

82 X 44 picks 3% run filling, 

right twist = 11.10 oz. 

List .20 oz. 



Loom weight 



24.40 oz. 



24.40 oz. -4- 5% waste allowance = 25.68 
oz. -f 12% shrinkage in length =f 29 
oz. of stock. 

29 oz. stock @ 54c. per lb = $ .9787 

Manufacturing cost: 

44 picks + 12% = 50 picks @ 

$.8000 = .4000 

Dyeing (extra) .0900 



Mill cost 



$1.4687 



Yarns tested when spinning: 
55 thread warp, 50 lbs. 
50 thread filling, 48 lbs. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



315 



FANCY TWILL KNICKERBOCKER DRESS GOODS 

This fabric is made 56 inches wide, 10 3-10 ounces in weight and is 
used for suits and skirts for women. The warp is a white knickerbocker 
yarn, and the filling is a dark grey mixture yarn. The white wool used in the 
warp should be a wool that can be scoured a clean white and then bleached. 
This includes the white wool nubs. Have the goods come out free from 
any yellow tinge. This cilass of goods is sometimes made in a cheaper 
grade of the same weight per yard by using a percentage of cotton both in 
the white warp and the dark mixture of filling. The finish is about as fol- 
lows: Full to 57 inches, scour, extract, dry to 57 inches, shear face, notary 
press, and finish 56 inches loom length. 




10 3-10-Ounce Fancy Twill Knickerbocker Dress Goods. 



Layout: 

1,920 ends, reed, 15 X 2 in dent, 64' 

for listing = 65 inches over all. 
30 picks. 
8 harness. 



STRAIGHT DRAW. 



+ 1' 



. DIIIDDDI 
fri ■■■DDDBa 

f A ■DDDBDBB 

y aaaBDBBB 

K DDBnBBBD 

fc. DBDBBBQa 

BDBBBODD 

HARNESS DRAFT. 



Warp: 

1,920 ends, 3% run c= 5.12 oz. 
+ 7% loom shrinkage 



Filling: 

30 picks X 65 inches = 1,950. 
1,950 picks, 3% run = 5.20 oz. 



-f- 4% loom shrinkage. 
Finished weight, 10.35 



COST CALCULATION. 
Warp: 

3 % run white Knickerbocker V2 draft. 
Twist is spun to right. 

75% lamb's wool @ 54c. per lb. = ? .4050 
25% wool nubs @ 60c. per lb. = .1500 

16) ? .5550 

An ounce $ .0347 

Filling: 

Dark grey mix., 3% run, % draft. 
Spin twist to right. 

100% med. wool @ 45c. per lb. = $ .4500 

16) $ .4500 

An ounce $ .0281 

Material: 

5.48 oz. 3% run warp + 12% shrink- 
age = 6.14 oz. @ $ .0347 =$ .2130 

5.41 oz. 3% run filling -f- 12% shrink- 
age = 6.06 oz. @ $ .0281 =? .1703 

$ .3833 

Manufacturing: 

30 picks @ .01c 3000 

Mill cost 4 $ .6833 



316 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



COVERT CLOTH 



This cloth is used for men's light-weight overcoats and for women's 
coats. The goo^s are made to sell at 56 inches wide, and weigh from 
about 16 to 26 ounces per yard. Great care should be taken in selecting 
the stock and the blending, so it will card out well and spin a nice, even 
thread, especially the yarns spun to be used for double twist, which is 
made by twisting two threads together of different shades, such as white 
and brown, white and tan, white and black, etc., and any unevenness or 
lumps in bad spinning will show badly in the goods, in the form of run- 
ners and specks on the face. About three-fourths of the yarn on face 




16-Ounce Covert Cloth. 



is warp, which is the double twist yarn. To eliminate this as much as 
possible, it would be well to respool the yarn after it has been spooled 
from the twisting frame, that is, run over an inspecting 
spooling frame, which runs at slower speed, so that the tender of 
this frame can take out any defectiv threads or ends that run slack. In 
this way a more perfect piece of goo can be produced and a better price 
be obtained in the market, which wi at least pay for the extra expense 
incurred. To finish this material ful to 56 inches, inside listing, scour, 
wash, extract, dry to 57 inches, steam brush, shear face close and crop 
on back to remove any long fibres, and rotary press, not too hot, to 56 
inches inside ol listing. 



HARNESS DRAFT. 



O ■■naoaanar.] 
k anaanaDBBD 

fc, BDBDBBaanB 

STRAIGHT DRAW. 

6 harness weave, but use 10 harness, and 
do not crowd heddles. 

Layout: 

2,688 ends. 

Reed: 10 X 4 In a dent = 67.2" inside 

listing. 
Plus 2" for listing = 69.2" over all. 
46 picks per inch. 



"Warp: 

2,688 ends 2/6 run D. T. 

white and tan 8.96 oz. 

Plus 10% loom shrinkage 

Filling: 

46 picks X 69.2" = 3,183 

picks 4V 2 run tan.... 7.07 oz. 
Plus 7% loom shrinkage 



7.56 oz. 



Finished weight 16.03 oz. 17.41 oz. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



317 



COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

The 2/6 run double twist yarn used in 
warp is made of 2 ends of 6 % run, spun 
% draft; twist to right, then twisted to- 
gether to left, 24 turns per inch, allowing 
a take-up in length in the twisting of 4% 
will be the equivalent of 2-ply 6 run yarn. 
The 4 run filling is spun 2/3 draft; twist 
to the left. 



2/6 run warp. 

Fine med. wool <3 
per oz. 

4 run filling. 

75% med. wool (§ 
25% fine shoddy 



64c. per lb., or 4c. 



50c. per lb. . . 
p 31c. per lb. 



.3750 
.0775 



16) $ .4525 
An ounce $ .0283 



9.85 oz. ■+- 14% shrink- 
age = 11.23 oz. 

2/6 run @ $.0004 = $.4492 

7.56 oz. + 14% shrink- 
age = 8. 62 oz. 

4 run @ $.0283 = .2439 

19.85 oz. $.6931 
Manufacturing : 

46 picks @ $.0084 = .3864 

Mill cost per yard $1.0796 



21-Ounce Covert Cloth. 



Layout: 

3,360 ends. 

Reed: 12% X 4 in dent, 67.2". 

Plus 2" for listing = 69.2" over all. 

60 picks per inch. 

Warp: 

3,360 ends 2/6 run D. T. 

white and brown 11.20 oz. 

Plus 10% loom shrinkage 12.32 

Filling: 

60 picks X 69.2" = 4,152 

picks 4% run brown.... 9.77 oz. 

Plus 7% loom shrinkage 



10.45 oz. 



Finished weight 20.97 oz. 22.77 oz 



COST CALCULATION. 

Material: 

The 2/6 run double twist warp is the same 
as is used in the 16-ounce covert just de- 
scribed, but white and medium brown, in- 
stead of white and tan. The filling is the 
same stock as is used in the 16-ounce 
covert, but spun 4% run instead of 4 run, 
and medium brown instead of tan. 
12.32 oz. + 14% shrink- 
age = 14.04oz. 

2/6 run @ $.0400 = $.5616 

10.45 oz. -f 14% shrink- 

M age = H.91 oz. 

4% run @ $.0283 = .3370 

Loom weight 25.95 oz. $.8986 

Manufacturing : 

60 picks @ $.0070 .42OO 

Mill cost per yard $1.3186 



14 75-100-Ounce Covert Cloth. 



Layout: 

3,360 ends. 

Reed: 12% X 4 in dent, 67.2" inside of 

listing. 
Plus 2" for listing = 69.2" over all. 
54 picks per inch. 

Warp: 

3,360 ends 2/8 run white 

and olive, D. T 8.40 oz. 

Plus 10% loom take-up. 



9.24 oz. 



Filling: 

54 picks X 69.2" = 3,736 

picks 5% run olive... 6.35 oz. 
Plus 8% loom take-up.. 6.86 oz. 

Finished weight 14.75 oz. 16.10 oz. 

COST CALCULATION. 
Material: 

The 2/8 run double twist yarn used in 
warp is one (1) thread of olive brown 
wool, spun 2/3 draft; twist to right; 8% 
run; and one (1) thread of white, 1/24 
worsted; twist to right. The 1/24 worst- 
ed is equal to 8% run woolen. They 



are twisted together to the left, 26 turns 
per inch, allowing a take-up in the length 
in the twisting of 4%, being the equiva- 
lent of 2-ply 8 run yarn. The 5% run 
filling is spun 2/3 draft; twist to the left. 
2/8 run double twist 

50% fine wool @ 72c. per lb..= $ .3600 
50% white 1/24 worsted % wool 

@ 84c = .4200 

16) $ .7800 

An ounce $ .0487 

5% run filling, med. wool @ 64c. per lb., 
or 4c. per ounce. 

9.24 oz. + 14% shrink- 
age = 10.53 oz. 

2/8 run @ $.0487 = $.5128 

6.86 oz. -f 14% shrink- 
age = 7.82 oz. 

5% run @ $.0400 = .312C 

Loom weight 18.35 oz. $.8256 

Manufacturing : 

54 picks @ $.7600 .4104 

Mill cost per yard $1.2360 



318 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



IMITATION FURS 



Among the many cloaking fabrics offered the present season, none are 
more popular than the varied assortment of imitation furs. They are made 
in all grades from the cheapest "dogskins" and "ponies" through the bear- 
skins up to the fine Persian lamb. Some of them are extremely difficult 
to detect from the genuine fur, while others are obviously poor imitations. 
The methods of manufacturing these fabrics are capable of division into three 
general classes, those made on plush looms, knitting frames and those pro- 
duced on the ordinary woolen or worsted loom. The first division includes 
the greater portion of the fabrics which require a long pile or nap to produce 
the desired effect as in "near seals," bearskins and furs of that type. The 
knitting machine product is largely the various forms of astrachans and Per- 
sian lamb effects, and the plain loom is used to produce several types of as- 
trachans and the short-haired furs which may be simulated by the nap capa- 
ble of being raised by means of the teasel gig or napping machine. The finish- 
ing of the pile fabric fur effects has been a specialty confined almost en- 
tirely to a comparatively few people in this country. In producing the com- 
mon caracul cloth finish, the methods have been very much improved in 
recent years. The method in vogue in France was to crowd the goods into 
sacks full of wrinkles, setting the crimps by boiling. This' method is but 
little used to-day and has given place to others, which in turn have been re- 
placed by the system in common practice to-day. The use of 

Embossing Rolls or Calenders 
is not advisable, as the back as well as the face of the goods receives an im- 
pression, moreover there is the danger of tendering the goods by the 
cutting action of the rolls, which act as die and matrix. The method of em- 
bossing most favored at the present time obviates this difficulty by the use 
of steam and cold water as the embossing agents instead of heat and pres- 
sure. The caracul pattern is formed on a strong cotton fabric by stitching 
heavy twine in curves that are somewhat irregular all over its surface. The 
fabric which it is desired to emboss is rolled with the pile next the twine of 
the cloth containing the pattern. At the back of the cloth is rolled another 
stout cotton with a plain surface. The three cloths are rolled on a cylinder 
perforated with a number of small holes which permit of blowing steam or 
cold water through the goods, resulting in the formation of the pattern in 
relief on the pile fabric. The present season has for one of its leading nov- 
elties for cloakings and children's coats a variety of fabrics in which the 
distinctive feature is the peculiar laying of the pile by means of brushes re- 
volving in a horizontal plane in contact with the wet pile as the fabric passes 
through the machine. Machines for producing these effects are offered by 
English and German builders of textile appliances and a limited number have 
been purchased by American manufacturers. Several styles of finish may 
be produced by these machines by means of changing the direction of rota- 
tion of the brushes which are independently driven. The machine in ap- 
pearance is not unlike the multiple spindle boring machine used in many of 
our wood and iron working plants. 

The cut shown here is one of the simple forms of machines adapted 
more especially for the production of the "pony" and "civet cat" types of 
imitation furs. Some of the more complicated machines have a double sys- 
tem of brushes, that is a central brush which may be rotated in one direction 
with another annular brush around it that rotates in the opposite direction, 
making it possible to produce a variety of very novel effects. 

The Small Circular Brushes 
are fixed on the lower end of the upright spindle, from which it receives its 
motion. The fabric here described receives its peculiar appearance from the 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



31? 



action of alternate brushes driven in opposite directions while in contact 
with the cloth moving over a flat bed, laying the pile to the right and left. 
By means of suitable levers the cloth may be lowered out of contact, shifted 
to the right or left as required, raised into contact again, laying the pile in 
line with the part or "pony back" section preceding it. The imitation of 
natural skins sewed together obtained in this manner is extremely true to 
life. The parti-colored effect necessary for the successful imitation of some 
furs is obtained by various methods. The one in most general use is of the 
nature of a printing machine. The dye is applied in spots or in a pattern 




Whirlpool Brushing Machine 



as desired by means of an engraved roll in contact with the pile fabric, 
which is forced into contact by means of a supporting roller. A similar ap- 
plication of a stripping agent to the fabric results in spots or patterns of 
light color on a dark ground. 

Fabrics suitable for finishing on these machines may be made on the 
plush loom, true pile fabrics, or on the fancy cassimere loom, these latter 
cloths having the necessary nap raised by means of the wire napper or 
teasel gig. A cloth of this type in very good demand the present season is 
made of stock which is probably unfamiliar to the greater part of our read- 
ers. The use of a fibre as coarse and short as that of the cow or calf will 
be thought an impossibility by many of our carders and spinners, neverthe- 
less it is used and with excellent results in the manufacture of the imita- 
tion pony skins of low grade which are a feature of to-day's business with 
one or two of our large woolen mills. The manipulation of stock such as 
this would not be readily undertaken by some of our carders, but in actual 
practice presents no insuperable obstacles. The warps for these cloths are 
in the majority of instances composed of a coarse, low-grade cotton thread, 
which is entirely covered in the finished goods by the glossy curls of the 



320 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



nap produced by the filling which forms the face of the goods. The cloths 
are of extremely low texture, seldom over twenty-four ends or picks per inch, 
and produce very rapidly. Their manufacture has been 

Confined to Few Mills, 

largely because of the cost of installing the necessary appliance for the pe- 
culiar finish. Many manufacturers have hesitated to purchase the machine, 
fearing that it could be used only for this type of work which may not re- 
main in popular favor a sufficient length of time to warrant the expense. 
The comparative lack of competition because of this timidity has resulted 
in an excellent business for the few mills equipped to accept orders for this 
type of fabric. Samples of foreign cloths of this character are in the hands 
of agents here, and a very satisfactory business has been booked. The lay- 
out here given is for one of the cheaper cloths. 



LAYOUT. 
Warp: 1,360 ends; reed 6y 2 — 3 = 69%" + 

1%" for listing = 71*4" over all. 
20 picks. 

CALCULATIONS. 

1,360 ends 2/12 button = 4.32 oz. 

+ 5% = 4.54 oz. 

20X71.25 

20 picks % run = = 22.80 oz. 

625 

Loom weight 27.34 oz. 

STOCK MIXTURE. 

40% hair @ 6c = $ .024 

60% shoddy @ 14c = .084 

$ .108 



COST. 

4.54 oz. @ 21c. per lb = $ .0596 

22.8 oz. + 20% shrinkage = 28.5 

oz. @ $108 = .1930 

Stock cost $.2526 

Manufacturing, 20 picks = .2000 

Net cost $.4526 



£ ■anan«nnnD 

Z namnnnaman 

O DOPcwnnaaB 

g ninangggnn 



□□QBQQQQBO. 



It may be that the manufacturing cost will appear low on this fabric, 
but such is not the case. The cotton warps should be purchased on loom 
beams, which eliminates the entire cost of warp preparation aside from 
the drawing in. The low number of picks of coarse filling will be a disad- 
vantage to mills not fitted for dealing with yarns of this character. The 
yarns should be spun on ten or eleven inch bobbins, if feasible, or on the 
bare spindle, and used in the form of cops to facilitate the weaving, which 
will require a weaver's attention on the filling most of the time. The warp 
should run practically with no breakage from end to end, allowing the weav- 
er to take care of the filling with no undue amount of labor. There are a 
variety of novel effects which may be produced by machines of this type, 
either on fabrics of the plush order or those woven on the ordinary loom, 
which may be developed in piece dyes or fancies. For plain stripes an or- 
dinary cylindrical brush is used in connection with a stencil, which governs 
the width of the stripes. 

Another method of producing fancy effects en these goods is by means 
of cutting the pile to form the pattern desired. This is accomplished on the 
shear by substituting a blade, of which portions are cut away to correspond 
with the parts of the pile which are to be left uncut to form the design in 
relief. A separate knife is necessary for each width of stripe. For the pro- 
duction of diagonals the cloth is fed to the blades at the required angle, and 
they are then lifted by suitable cams at the end of the traverse. Of all these 
methods the multiple brushing machine is capable of the most satisfactory 
results in the hands of a competent and careful workman. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 321 



FANCY CASSIMERE 



The fabric here illustrated is one that sold in quantities a few year,? 
ago, several mills operating their entire equipment in the production of va- 
rious styles in this construction, a New England mill of over a hundred 
looms operating at full capacity for nearly three years on the exact fabric 
analyzed. The popularity of this cloth was due to the extremely fine face 
appearance, the weave employed for its production, plain or cotton, giving a 
much closer texture than could otherwise be obtained unless a material in- 
crease was made in both ends and picks. The weave used permitted the 
manufacture of a wide range of patterns while the designer was practically 
unlimited in the variety of color mixtures used. Many of the styles produced 
displayed a considerable ability in the formation of mixtures which for har- 
monious blendings of colors were equal to any produced since either in this 
country or abroad. Some were of the nature of the so-called heather 
mixes, presumably so named for their approximation to the colors seen on 
the hillsides of "Auld Scotland" and never to be forgotten by her sons and 




Cotton Weave Cassitrere. 

daughters. Another type was the so-called "illuminated mixes," made for 
the most part with a large percentage of a very dark shade with just a hint 
of bright colors tastefully blended into the mass, which stood out clearly 
against the dark background, but not strong enough to make the mixture 
appear crude or inharmonious. The inherent 

Difficulty of Producing Perfect 
goods with fine yarns in the relatively tight weave needed to give the de- 
sired effect deterred many mills from attempting to secure a part of the 
business, which might easily have been obtained, as the demand was in ex- 
cess of the production of the comparatively few mills engaged in manufac- 
turing these cloths. 

The face warp and filling were made from a nice territory wool, spun 
to five run for warp and five and a half run for the filling. The back warp 
was cotton, usually 2-26, but in some instances a single 14 was used. A con- 
siderable part of the weight was obtained by the use of a heavy backing 
filling made from a stock mixture of wool, shoddy and cotton. Wools for the 



322 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

face yarns should be fine, of fairly good length, well sorted and scoured ab- 
solutely clean. The latter item is of the utmost importance, as improperly 
scoured wools cannot be colored with any degree of success, nor will the 
finished fabric have the brightness and life of a cloth made from clean 
stock. The method used in scouring is not of great importance, excellent 
results being obtained with the old-style soaking vat and rinse box, though 
the installation of a modern type of wool-washing machine will well repay 
the outlay, if any quantity of wools are bought in the grease. There is con- 
siderable diversity of opinion relative to this question, many manufactur- 
ers being firmly convinced that by purchasing grease wools and sorting and 
scouring them in their own plant they are able to obtain better values than 
would be possible if scoured wools were bought. Others maintain that for 
the mill of less than 

Fifty to Sixty Looms 
it is not economy to do their own scouring. This difference of opinion is due 
to a variety of causes; proximity to markets and reliable scourers should be 
taken into account in consideration of the question. That the size of the 
plant makes no material difference in the policy to be followed is shown 
by the fact that within a few miles of each other are two mills, one of sev- 
enteen looms using nothing but grease wools, while its neighbor with a hun- 
dred looms buys scoured wools entirely. The advantage in buying wools in 
the grease is the fact that grades may be maintained more even and the 
scouring kept up to a uniform standard at all times. The difference in cost 
is probably very slight, if any saving is made by the small plant. The se- 
lection of the wools for mixture should receive careful attention, as it is 
essential that they be 

Free and Open, 
containing no undergrowth or short staple that will card out with difficulty, 
or possibly refuse to be carded, and roll up, forming minute 'pills" that will 
show in the finished fabric in the form of specks. This is a very serious con- 
dition of affairs, as it means, in any case, the employment of extra nclp in 
th<» finishing room to remove the specks with burling irons or selling the 
goods at yrie?o that will entirely blot out the gain and possibly make in- 
roads on the pronis secured from other goods. The carder may be able 
to relieve the situation somewhat by trueing up the cards, grinding and in 
other ways putting them into Al condition. It will probably be necessary to 
set them closer than would ordinarily be the case, and when all is done the 
specks may still be present in sufficient numbers to cause much damage. 
The use of pulled wools for making mixtures is advocated by many of our 
most skillful manufacturers, their claims of its superiority for this purpose 
resting on years of experience. In preparing a batch to be colored into 
light shades select wools that are free from yellow tips or other discolora- 
tions, as the tinge of the wool will oftentimes prevent the dyer from ob- 
taining the clearness of shade desired. Stock used for the white should be 
bleached and the black for the mixtures should be of a decided blue cast, 
a much better shade of mixture resulting from a blend of such colors. The 
roving for the face yarns should be made half draft, that is, a reeling of 
25 yards of roving should weigh the same as a 50-yard reeling of spun yarn. 
This will permit of drawing the stock sufficiently on the mules to insure 
the making of a strong, 

Smooth, Elastic Thread. 
The idea prevalent among spinners that the strength of the yarn is due 
to the twist is only half correct. In many cases a change in the drafting 
will show an increase of strength with less twist than was put into the un- 
derdrawn yarn. The backing filling is made from a totally different stock, 
and will require slightly different treatment in both carding and spinning. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 323 

The roving should be made about two -thirds draft, as the quality of the 
stock will not permit of its being drawn to so great an extent in the spin- 
ning. The object to be attained here is not so much strength as a full, 
round, sort thread that will cover as much as possible the cotton of the 
back warp. The handle of the fabrics is much improved by giving the backs 
a few runs on the napping machine. Many manufacturers would consider 
that goods of this character should 

Be Dressed on Two Beams, 
one containing the face warp, the other the cotton, as the take-up and elas- 
ticity of the threads are so at variance. Actual mill practice has amply 
proven that in this particular construction the expense of double beam work 
may be dispensed with, the dressing of both wool and cotton on one beam 
giving extremely good results. 

One of the chief difficulties in weaving is the tendency to form small 
floats with but little apparent reason. To prevent this, the warp should be 
woven with considerable tension, every end replaced as soon as the break 
is noticed, and all knots tied without the long ends so often found as a re- 
sult of carelessness on the part of the spoolers. The weave used will cause 
floats more readily than those commonly employed for the production of 
cassimeres, requiring close attention on the part of the weaver. The goods 
should be carefully perched, all imperfections marked, details as to length, 
weight, piece number, etc., entered on suitable blanks, and the goods sent 
to the burling room. Here the girls are required to raise all knots, back 
and face, remove slugs, bits of foreign matter and the tangled ends of 
broken threads or filling that have been drawn in at the sides. The opera- 
tion of burling, while apparently very simple and 

Requiring no Special Skill, 
must be very carefully performed on many styles of goods, or much harm 
may be done. In removing slugs care must be taken not to break the 
threads next to that in process of removal, and knots must not be broken 
off too short, lest the ends shrink back during the fulling, making more 
work for the sewers. In addition to replacing broken ends and picks, the 
sewers must remove coarse threads, double ends, correct wrong draws, 
mend floats and put the pieces in as nearly perfect condition as possible 
before they are fulled, as such work is much more easily performed before 
the fibres have become felted together. Before the pieces are taken to the 
fulling mills they should again be perched to see that burling and sewing 
have been properly done. In the fulling room the pieces should be run into 
the mills two at a time, given sufficient quantity of a good, full-bodied 
soap to 

Thoroughly Saturate the Goods. 
After running a short time they should be examined and tested to see that 
the soap is working well. The grease and dirt should be well started, then 
the mills operated with the traps up, as the goods are not to be fulled end- 
wise. With a soap of full body, properly mixed, the fulling should not take 
more than three to three and one-half hours, when the pieces are ready 
f or the washer. 

Run for half an hour in warm water, open the gates and give a thor- 
ough rinsing, close the gates, allow a pail of soap to each piece and let them 
run in a warm lather for fifteen minutes, rinse well and extract. If the 
goods are to be finished with a soft back they should go to the nappers 
before drying, otherwise they may be dried directly after extracting. The 
drying should be carried on at as low a temperature as is compatible with 
the production, in fact, rather than to hasten the drying by increasing the 
temperature in the drying chamber, it would be profitable either to operate 
the dryer overtime or increase the capacity by adding to the drying cham- 



',24 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



ber of the machine. Too thorough extracting, while aiding in the drying 
operation, is to be avoided, as the goods will not handle as well as pieces 
which go to the dryer rather damp and dry slowly. From the dryer the 
goods are taken to the nappers and given sufficient work on the face to 
raise the nap sufficiently for the shear to give a clean, clear finish, every 
thread round and full, the pattern standing out with distinctness. Give a 
thorough inspection, repair all damages which may have escaped notice 
hitherto, then give a run on the steam brush, and press hard. Steam light- 
ly as the goods come from the press, rolling on a wooden roll, where they 
should be allowed to 

Remain Overnight 
before being unrolled for the final perching. It may be thought by some 
that such care is not required in the manufacture of fabrics containing cot- 
ton, but buyers have grown more and more exacting each year, and at the 
present time expect perfection even in low-priced goods. In many cases 
goods which would have been satisfactory deliveries a few years since 
would now be classed as poor seconds. 

A less expensive fabric, made from the exact construction used in the 
one described above, was produced profitably by a Rhode Island mill at an 
unusually low cost of manufacture. The fancy colors on the face were 
spun from a fine wool, the ground color, approximately half of the warp 
and filling, was spun from a stock mixture composed of 75 per cent cotton 
and 25 per cent wool, with the backing filling made from a mixture of 
equal parts of good cotton and card waste. This fabric sold well for several 
seasons, and gave excellent service to the ultimate consumer. The entire 
manufacturing eost was only thirty cents per yard, considerably under what 
the average mill would regard as a fair estimate for manufacturing a sim- 
ilar fabric. 



3.S40 ends; 14 reed, 4 per dent = 68.5" + 2" 

for listing = 70.5" over all. 
48 picks. 



STOCK. 



52c. per lb. 



Face warp and filling all wool 

3 Vic. an ounce. 
Back warp 2/26 cotton @ 28c. per lb. 

$ .0175 an ounce. 



Back filling 25% wool @ 48c 

75% shoddy @ 24c. 



, = 12" 
,= 18c. 



Per pound . . . 
$ .1875 an ounce. 



CALCULATIONS. 

'.,920 ends 5 run = 3.84 oz. + 12%% 

take-up = 4.32 oz. 

1,920 ends 2/26 cotton = 2.75 oz. 

+ 12y 2 % take-up = 3.09 oz. 

32X70.5 
32 picks 5y 2 run = - = 4.12 oz. 



16 picks 1 >4 run 
I.nom weight 



550 
16X70.5 



COST. 
8.44 oz. wool + 15% waste = 9.93 

oz. @ 31.4c = $ .3227 

4.12 oz. cotton + 3% waste = 4.24 

oz. @ l%c = .0742 

9.02 oz. backing 4- 25% waste = 

12.02 oz. @ l%c = .2253 



Cost of stock 
"Manufacturing . . 



.6222 
.3240 



Total net mill cost. 



$ .9462 



16 harness, straight draw. 

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WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 325 

FINE FANCY WORSTED SUITING 

The greater part of the men's wear fabrics described from time to time 
have been those which are manufactured at a popular price and used by 
the large clothing manufacturers. The sample selected for analysis and de- 
scription here is of an entirely different character, both in construction 
and stock used. Such cloths are usually sold through the jobber, and are 
intended primarily for the fine tailoring trade. The stock selected for man- 
ufacturing the yarns here used is an Australian, capable of being spun to 
64s or even finer, but in the sample is spun to 40s, making a plump, round, 
smooth thread, that gives an 

Appearance and Handle 

to the fabric impossible to secure with any other stock. The yarns are 
spun on the Bradford system, are carefully inspected and practically per- 
fect when purchased by the weaver. For use in this type of goods the 
yarns are invariably skein -dyed, the method pursued usually involving the 
use of a machine of the Ferris wheel type. In this machine the skeins are 
held at full length by means of sticks resting in sockets on the spiders, and 
alternately immersed and withdrawn from the dye-liquor. The results ob- 




Fine Worsted Trousering. 



tained by this method are far superior to those resulting from the use of 
the old-style hand-tub. When dry the skeins are taken to the winding 
room and wound to six-inch spools, or, in the most up-to-date mills, 

Formed into Cones, 
a much more convenient and economical method of handling. The spools, 
or cones, are then placed on a suitable rack at the back of a spooler, and 
the yarn transferred to a jack spool for convenience in handling in subse- 
quent operations. In each of these operations it is essential that the op- 
eratives tie a knot that will hold during subsequent transactions without 
slipping. Dressing should preferably be done on a wet frame, as the high 
filling texture (99 picks per inch) may result in considerable chafing if the 
warps are not sized. The question as to the sizing compound which will 
give the best results is one that may be left for each individual mill to de- 
cide, as there are circumstances connected with each case that may re- 



326 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

quire treatment that would not be suitable for others. The size used in any 
case should be one that is readily soluble in warm water and containing 
nothing that is in any way harmful to the wool fibre or that will have any 
effect on the colors used in dyeing the yarns. The use of a suitable warp 
compressor in beaming the warps is strongly recommended, as in this 
method of beaming the 

Life and Elasticity of the Yarn 
is preserved, and a warp made that will give much better results in the 
way of production and quality of finished goods. 

The fixer should have the loom in Al condition before the warp is 
hung in, and see that every thread is in its place before starting up. Set the 
reed in such manner that the warp is in the center of the reed space. 
Should the reed itself be shorter than the space between lay ends, fill in 
the space with pieces of reed, as too much space is very likely to cause more 
or less trouble in the way of throwing the shuttle crooked. See that the 
reed is perfectly straight and in line with the throat of the box, also that 
the boxes are in the correct position in relation to the race plate. Have the 
harness so that the lower shade will clear the race plate nicely, yet not 
be high enough to throw out the shuttle or cause split bobbins. Adjust the 
power and sweep straps so that the shuttle reaches the box in good time, 
but without sufficient force to cause it to rebound. See that the stop mo- 
tion is oiled and works accurately and that the take-up is pulling over the 
correct number of teeth, if the ratchet ring type is used. When the head- 
ing is woven, an inch or two may be woven with the correct filling, and the 

Harnesses Raised One by One 
for the detection of threads out, wrong draws, wrong colors or defects of 
any other nature. If found all right, the harness looker should mark it 
OK, sign his initials, and the weaver may start his loom. Mills making fine 
fancy fabrics should have enough competent men to look over the harness 
on each loom at least twice weekly, as the greater perfection of product 
secured in this way will well repay the expense involved. When the pieces are 
taken from the loom they should be perched and measured, then pulled 
over a table in a good light and every imperfection marked for the sew- 
ers, a complete record of the details as to loom number, piece number, 
weaver, yards, picks, etc., being made on a form provided for the purpose, 
so that reference may be readily made should occasion require. Burling 
on goods of this grade must be carefully performed, all knots raised back 
and face, slugs reduced and slack threads drawn up. The burlers should 
also be provided with a piece of chalk and instructed to mark any imper- 
fection that escaped the notice of the weave room percher. In this way 
much valuable time will be saved in the sewing room. 

Sewing on line fancy worsteds requires no little skill. In order to ac- 
complish the best results, the sewers should 

Have Some Knowledge of Weaving 
and be able to read the chain draft, as at times it becomes necessary to 
replace a thread in an intricate weave, and it is essential that the system 
of interlacing warp and filling be known exactly. In addition to sewing in 
broken threads and picks, the sewers must repair wrong draws, replace 
hard twist and coarse threads, tight picks or wrong colors, as well as re- 
pair floats, holes and other imperfections. After sewing, the goods should 
again be inspected before passing to the next process, to make certain that 
every damage which can be repaired has received attention. The pieces 
may then be taken to the wet finishing and should be carefully scoured with 
a pure, neutral soap. Harsh detergents of any kind should never be al- 
lowed to come in contact with fine goods of any description, and are par- 
ticularly out of place in the finishing of high-grade worsteds. When thor- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 327 

oughly cleansed and well rinsed, remove from the washer, place on the 
wet brush and give alternate steam and cold water blowings, with the ends 
of the pieces changed between the operations. Extract in the 

Open Width 

to avoid wrinklos. This is a very simple process, and may be readily ac- 
complished in any mill with a comparatively inexpensive installation of 
machinery. All that is required is a suitable roll and means for rotating it 
at a speed of S00 to 1,000 revolutions per minute. The pieces may be 
wound to this roll direct from the wet brush. A truck fitted to carry five 
or six of these extracting rolls should be provided, on which they may be 
taken to the dryer. A frequent error is the use of too high a temperature 
during the drying operation. This should be guarded against, as the han- 
dle of the goods is very much depreciated by such treatment. Drying in the 
open air is much preferable to any method of artificially performing this 
part of the work, but the length of time required and the lack of room for 
tenter bars sufficient to dry in this way are objections that make it im- 
practical. In default of this, the best substitute is a chain dryer of such ca- 
pacity that the drying can be accomplished at a moderate heat. When dry, 
the pieces are taken to the brush, given two or three runs, then sheared, 

Lowering the Blade 

a notch or two between each run. A very grave mistake is made in at- 
tempting to shear- too closely on the first cut. After shearing, steam brush, 
spray and press. The result will be a fabric of which any finisher may well 
be proud, and tnat will compare favorably with any made in this country or 
abroad. Many of the mills making fabrics of this grade put them through 
a further process, and sell them as "London shrunk." This process may be 
performed in several ways, one in common use being to roll the pieces in 
contact with a wet cloth, allowing them to remain until the moisture has 
entirely disappeared and repressing with a plate press. Another method 
of accomplishing the same result is to run them between two rolls, the 
lower, covered with cloth, revolving in a trough of water. The piece is then 
hung over bars in folds and allowed to dry naturally. The method of finish- 
ing here described is somewhat more expensive than the system commonly 
used, and is more nearly akin to that in use in the foreign mills making 
high-class fabrics. The extra time and expense involved are well repaid 
by the 

Enhanced Value of the Goods. 

The peculiarly plump, kindly handle of the fabrics cannot be developed 
without an expenditure of time and labor, which probably is not justified 
in the manufacture of popular-priced cloths. The method of finishing in 
use in many of the Bradford fine goods mills involves the use of falling 
stocks, a type of machine practically unknown in domestic worsted mills. 
They are used preliminary to the scouring, and aid very materially in pro- 
ducing the handle typical of the finest cloths. The statement is often made 
that domestic manufacturers cannot make fabrics equal in quality and fin- 
ish to those from abroad. This remark has no foundation in fact, as manu- 
facturers in general do not cater extensively to the fine trade, they having 
learned by experience that there is more profit to be made in the medium- 
priced goods which sell in large quantities than in higher-priced materials, 
which, while they show a larger profit per yard, do not permit of operating 
a plant on as efficient a basis because of the fact that orders for fine goods 
are invariably for small quantities involving the making of one and two 
piece warps with the attendant increase in manufacturing charges. 



328 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



LAYOUT. 

6,480 ends; 16% reed, 6 per dent = 65%" 
+ 1%" for listing = 67" over all. 

99 picks. 

Dressed: 

2/40 light slate 3 6 I 9 

2/40 dark slate 3 3 I 6 

2/40 black 3 13 

18 
18 X 24 = 432 

15 sections. 

6,480 
Filling: 

2/40 black 1 1 | 2 

4 run black 1 | 1 

I 

3 
STOCK. 
Worsted (warp and filling) 2/40 Australian. 
Wool (4 run back filling) % -blood territory. 

CALCULATIONS. 
6,480 ends 2/40 = 9.26 oz. + 10% 

take-up = 10.29 oz. 

66X67 

66 picks 2/40 = = 6.32 oz. 

40X560H-16-H2 
33X67 

33 picks 4 run = = 5.53 oz. 

400 

Loom weight 22.14 oz. 



COST. 

16.61 oz. worsted + 7%% waste 
17.95 oz. @ 6%c 

5.53 oz. wool + 15% waste 
6.5 oz. @ 314 c 

Cost of stock 

Manufacturing , 

Net mill cost 



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$1,430 

.554 



$1,984 



GUN CLUB CHECKS 



This type of check has become so popular of late that few lines, either 
of fancy worsteds or woolens, do not contain one or more books of club 
checks in various sizes and colors. In fact, they are so generally shown 
every season that they have really become practically staples, or possibly 
to be more nearly exact, semistaples. They are made in a great variety of 
colorings and a wide range of fabrics, from the low-priced manipulated 
cassimere to the finest Australian worsted. The characteristic of this check 
is the color arrangement of the pattern, which invariably consists of three 
colors arranged light, medium, light, dark, as in our illustration, forming a 
check within a check. 

For men's wear cloths the patterns are usually dressed with either two, 
four or six threads of each color on the face in each pattern, but for ladies' 
wear, either dress goods or cloakings, much larger effects are often produc- 
ed, it being not at all unusual to find checks two inches or more in diameter. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 32d 

The cloakings are made usually from coarse wools, finished with consider- 
able nap, and invariably made from yarns of relatively coarse numbers. The 
fabric selected for analysis is a medium-weight worsted men's wear, such 
as is used in quantity by the large manufacturing clothiers. Instead of us- 
ing a straight draw, as is the usual custom, every fourth set of dark 




Gun Club Check. 

threads are drawn on alternate harnesses, giving the effect of a stripe at 
intervals of approximately an inch. The yarns used in the manufacture of 
the fabric under discussion were made from well-grown three-eighths ter- 
ritory wool, carefully sorted and well scoured. In the latter operation, it is 
necessary to use great care if the best possible fabric is to be made from 
the stock used. The statement is often made that it 

Requires Much Less Skill 
to produce a sightly and salable fabric from worsted and other high-grade 
stocks than from the cheaper wools and substitutes. There is much truth 
in this remark, but it is equally as true that skill and care are necessary to 
produce the highest possible type of merchandise from the more expensive 
raw materials, and it is also a fact that lack of care in some of the appar- 
ently unimportant processes will very much depreciate the quality of the 
finished product. 

This fact is seemingly overlooked at times by those in charge of the 
various departments, and results in considerable worry and anxiety on the 
part of the finisher and dyer when the finished goods are not up to the 
standard. To many of those who are conversant with the manufacture of 
worsted cloths the preparatory processes from raw stock to spun yarn are 
a sealed book. They have a more or less hazy idea that worsted yarn is 
prepared from wool by means of special machinery, and most of them are 
aware that somewhere in the system there is a combing process, but have 
no definite idea as to what the comb is nor the functions it has in the sys- 
tem of manufacture. There are many engaged in the various operations of 
worsted cloth making who have 

Never Seen the Wool 
in its natural condition, and have but a faint idea of the various processes 
necessary to convert it into the strong, smooth thread they are accustomed 



330 Woolen and worsted fabrics glossary 

to handle. It is generally considered that the manufacture of worsted yarns 
is an entirely separate branch of the industry, and for that reason com- 
paratively few are conversant with both yarn production and weaving. 

The weaver forms his opinion of the yarn from the appearance, han- 
dle and breaking strength of the sample, and is totally unable to determine 
the cause for one lot being distinctly inferior to another of the same grade. 
To one thoroughly familiar with the manufacture of yarn from the raw 
stock, the cause of the inferiority may be readily located, and in many in- 
stances may be traced to lack of due care in one of the 

So-Called Unimportant Processes. 
If the best possible results are to be obtained, it must be impressed on the 
minds of every operative and overseer that there is absolutely no such 
thing as an "unimportant process" in textile manufacturing. Each individ- 
ual process is extremely important and should receive as much care as 
though the success of the whole mill depended on its proper performance. 
Wool scouring, in itself a seemingly simple operation, may be so poorly 
done as to reduce the value of the scoured wool to an amazing degree, and 
to this, the first mechanical process in the manufacture of yarns, may be 
traced much of the trouble that develops in other departments. It may be 
thought that such a statement is overdrawn, but many years' experience 
has taught us that the scouring is one of the 

Most Prolific Sources of Trouble 
that exists in the mill. This is because of the peculiar physical structure of 
the wool fibre itself and its susceptibility to injuries of various kinds that 
materially impair its strength and working qualities. To preserve the life, 
elasticity and luster of the wool and bring it out clean, white and lofty 
should be the aim of those in charge of this very important process. 

In order to obtain these results, it is essential that the water supply 
should be suitable for the purpose, that is, free from hardness, as it is im- 
possible to satisfactorily cleanse wool in hard water. The detergents must 
be of good quality, free from impurities of any kind that shall affect the 
wool adversely, and the temperature of the scouring bath must not be too 
high. Under such conditions, and these only, is it possible to secure results 
that are satisfactory. 

In preparing wool for worsted manufacture there is much less danger 
of injuring the stock by excessive heat in drying, as in the majority of 
cases it is not thoroughly dried but taken to the cards in a slightly moist 
condition, and not entirely free from soap. This is done as an 

Aid to the Carding Process, 
as the wool while moist is more easily opened and carded, with much less 
probability of injury to the staple. In every process — preparing, combing, 
gilling and drawing — the utmost care should be observed to preserve the 
uniformity of the sliver, and the drafts must be arranged with due con- 
sideration for the length of the fibre in process. It must not be supposed 
that all so-called 60s, 56s or 46s tops can be treated alike, as they will vary 
considerably in length, and must be processed accordingly. The numbers 
given tops are quality numbers, and are not supposed to be the equiva- 
lents of the yarn sizes to which the tops may be spun, as many suppose. 

The roving and reducing frames should be examined two or three times 

daily to see that there are no defective top rolls, as worn rolls will result 

in slubby, uneven yarn, and make a, very appreciable increase in the cost of 

burling and sewing, as well as decreasing the production in the weave room. 

Finishing Expense Increased. 

The spun yarn must be doubled and twisted before it is in condition 
for use, and in these operations there is much room for improvement. In 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 331 

many mills the spinner bobbins are put up on the trap twister, the inter- 
mediate operation of doubling being dispensed with. While apparently de- 
creasing manufacturing expense, this method is considered by many of our 
more progressive manufacturers to be false economy. The saving effected 
is more apparent than real, as the use of a cone winder and a doubling 
machine, while involving an immediate expense for installation and a con- 
stant labor charge, will more than offset these items by the greatly increas- 
ed production from the twisters and the vastly superior quality of the 
yarn. 

Efficiency and Labor Cost. 

True efficiency does not consist in all cases of reducing the expense of 
the particular process under consideration, but is obtained in some cases 
by increasing the cost of one operation, thus obtaining a more perfect 
product that in subsequent processes will permit of the elimination of much 
labor and waste, showing a saving much greater than the former expense, 
and above all, making possible the production of a more nearly perfect 
iabric. 

Yarn inspection is of vital importance in the economics of mill man- 
agement, and has been the subject of no little discussion as to the method 
calculated to secure the best results. In many spinning plants, yarns which 
are to be dyed are reeled directly from the spinning bobbins and inspected 
in the skein. This method, while having some good points, has more de- 
fects. It is difficult for the operative to find and remove all the imperfec- 
tions, and results, in the majority of instances, in more or less entangling 
of the skein, so that winding is made more difficult, with an increased 
amount of waste. A much bettter method is that in use in a Rhode Island 
mill, where every pound of yarn made, whether to be shipped in skeins or 
on jack spools, is placed on the inspecting spooler. 

Inspecting Spoolers. 

This differs but little from the ordinary worsted spooler, except that 
there is increased space between the back and front guides, and in this 
space is placed a board painted black, over which the threads pass at a 
slow speed, enabling the operative, seated behind the spool, to readily see 
and remove the various imperfections. A new type of inspecting spooler, 
especially adapted for ease of inspection and high relative production is 
the multiple inspection spooler, perfected by the late David D. McTaggart, 
and manufactured by the Warp Compressing Machine Company, Worcester, 
Mass. In this machine is combined perfection of spooling and ease of in- 
spection. In a suitable rack the six-inch spools or other packages of yarn 
are placed to the number of 240. The ends are laid over a fixed roll, under 
a roll movable in a vertical plane, which operates to take up the slack 
caused by the overrun of the spools, over another fixed bearing roll, down 
in front of a black screen which makes easily discernible the imperfections, 
and across to the front of the spooler, in front of which the operative is 
seated, thence to the compressing spooler rolls. The machine is capable of 
a high percentage of production, is fitted with electrical stop motion, and 
the spooling is the most perfect yet seen, each spool running off clean to 
the barrel with no overrun, slack ends or crossed threads. 

For the fabric we are to make the yarns are taken to the reels and 
put into two-ounce skeins for the dyehouse. The 

Method of Skein Dyeing 

now most generally used is that in which the skeins are placed on sticks in 
a machine of the Ferris wheel type, kept extended to nearly their full 
length during operation, and by the rotation of the spiders alternately sub- 
merged in the dye -bath and raised from it. The dyes should be dissolved 



332 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

in a tub or pail and strained before being fed into the dye-kettle, or un- 
even and streaky yarns nay result. Do not raise to a boil too rapidly, and 
when the bath has boiled for about twenty minutes take a sample to see 
that the work is progressing satisfactorily. When the desired shade has 
been obtained, draw off the kettle, extract and hang the skeins on poles 
to dry, or still better, place them on a cold air drying machine, which will 
insure much more satisfactory results. Dry thoroughly and take to the 
winders for transference to six-inch spools, from which the yarns may be 
readily placed on jack spools for the dresser or winder. Dressing and 
weaving should be easily accomplished, as the yarns are strong and elas- 
tic. When woven, inspected and measured, the burlers must raise the knots 
on both sides, remove slugs and bits of foreign matter, tangled ends of 
broken threads, etc., before sending the pieces to the sewers. The sewers 
must replace broken ends and picks, repair wrong draws, hard twist and 
other imperfections, putting the pieces in as nearly perfect condition as 
possible, when they are ready for scouring. 

For Scouring Worsteds 

a pure palm oil soap will be found to give excellent results, and will not 
require any great reenforcement with alkali, as the grease content of the 
fabric is small. Scour until satisfied that the goods are clean, then rinse 
until every trace of soap is removed, extract and dry at a moderate heat. 
Give a run on the polisher and shear close enough to bring every thread up 
round and distinct. After shearing they should be inspected and, if nec- 
essary, taken to the fine sewers, who will repair any defects. Brush, spray 
and press, allowing them to cool off in the roll. 

LAYOUT. CALCULATIONS. 

3,360 ends; 13 reed, 4 per dent = 64.6" + 3 ' 360 ends 2/32 = 6 oz - + 10< & take " , RR nr 

' • t- U p __ 6.(j(j oz. 

1%" for listing = 66" over all. 56X66 

.... 56 picks 2/32 = = 6.60 oz. 

56 picks. 560X32-h16h-2 

Dressed: _ . . . ,,„.„„ 

Loom weight \6.lb oz. 

Light slate 2/32 worsted. 2 4 2 8 ,-„„ ;, , ,„„, . i, ni .„„ 

Dark slate 2/32 worsted. 4 4 13 - 26 oz - worsted + 10% waste = 14.06 oz. 

Black 2/32 worsted 4 I 4 COST. 

16 2/32 worsted (w 76c. per lb. 

30 14.06 oz. @ 4%c. (stock cost) = % .6678 

. Manufacturing, 56 picks = .3580 

480 ' 

*7 Net mill cost $1.0258 

•Sections. 71^ ^ gffiSSBBR 

Filling: fc ggSKHSS .' •■. 

Light slate 2/32 worsted. 4 4 I 8 9 ■BgPPSSR 3 3 3* 

Dark slate 2/32 worsted. 4 I 4 g Hn5«nn!£ 2 222 

Black 2/32 worsted 4 14 w ■□□■SODB i i i 

US 5 times. 2 times. 



SCOTCH TWEEDS 

We gather from history that Egypt, the cradle of so many of our handi- 
crafts, was the birthplace of the loom and the art of weaving; France to 
have given us the jacquard loom, the most capable mechanism for produc- 
ing ornamental woven fabrics; Germany to have increased the multiplicity 
of colors and shades employed in the textile trade; England to have given 
us the most improved machinery for transforming the raw material into 
yarns and cloths, and Scotland may boast of being the country which gave 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



333 



to the world the Scotch tweed — the pure unadulterated tweed, with its soft, 
cosy handle, its strength and its elasticity, its rich and tasteful colorings, 
which vie with nature herself in the harmonious blending of colors. Surely 
none but a Scotchman, steeped in the colorings of the heather hills, could 
devise such rich mixtures of colors, mingling them in such harmonious pro- 
portions that each blend or mixture represents in itself a little touch of 
"Auld Scotland" so dear to the hearts of her sons and daughters. 

The writer was much interested in reading in this paper, during April, 
articles on the "Introduction and Development of the Scotch Tweeds." The 
author of these articles stated the origin of the heather mixtures, which were 
actually copied from the blendings of the heather bloom, brackens and 
grasses on Buckholm Hill at Galashiels. The author also mentioned copying 
the blends of colors in the rocks, the reds, blues and greens mixing with the 
slates and neutral greys of the lichens. There are the well-known Lovat 
mixtures, originated by Sir John Lovat, and which represent the colorings 




Scotch Tweed. 



of a Scottish moor at the beginning of the shooting season, which opens o*. 
August 12. There are also the mixtures of browns, reds and gold, which 
remind one of the same moors during the autumn months, when nature runa 
riot with colors, and which can be seen by anyone in our own New Eng- 
land White Mountains, when the leaves are turning and painting the land- 
scape in a mass of color so rich in its harmonies and so effective in its con - 
trasts that the 'overs of nature stand transfixed with the beauty of the pic- 
ture that Dame Nature has painted for them. 

Most Popular Shades had Homely Origins. 

While it is true that the manufacturers and designers of the Scotch 



334 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

tweeds have received much inspiration from the colorings of the rugged 
hills and barren rocks, the writer recalls the origin of a very fashionable 
shade gotten up by a Hawick manufacturer many years ago, wno was pass- 
ing along one morning by the side of the mill raceway, and noted the dis- 
charge of water from the scouring rooms and dyehouse. He called to a 
boy, "Say, laddie, rin and tell Tarn (the dyer) to cam here." Tarn came,, 
wondering what the boss wanted with him on the bank of the raceway 
Possibly the thought that he had discovered too much dyestuff going down 
the river, but the smile on his face and his eager look belied such a sus- 
picion. "Tarn, man! d'ye see that water? (meaning the soapy mixture from 
scouring and dye room). I want you to dye me that shade." Tarn dyed 
it, and the shade was the rage in London that season, and it is safe to say 
that the manufacturer did not tell of the homely origin of his "scoop" in the 
color world. 

The popularity of Scotch tweeds depends upon three things: The sterling 
value and soundness of the yarns employed, the artistic and model effects 
of the arrangement of the colors, and lastly, great care that the dyes used 
should not be of a fugitive nature. The weaves used generally are the plain 
cloth and the four-harness twill, probably 15 out of every 20 pieces being 
made up of one or the other of these weaves, the four-harness twill giving 
the best handle of cloth, and standing the tear and wear most satisfactorily 
in Saxony and cheviot goods. 

In the originating and blending of colors in new mixtures great care 
should be given to color harmony and the proportions of each color in re- 
gard to its complementary color. For instance, note how a bright green leaf 
or a brilliant emerald at the throat intensifies the freshness of the ladies' 
complexion; the ripe red cherries among the glossy green leaves, or the 
yellow pansy with its purple throat, are examples of the happy color com- 
binations in art and nature. In order to get an idea of 

Color Harmonies, 

mark out an equal-sided triangle on a piece of paper. On one side or angle 
write red, another blue, another yellow. These are the primary colors, and 
all others are made by combinations of these three. Between the blue and 
red write purple; between blue and yellow write green, and between red and 
yellow write orange. These are made by the union of the two nearest colors. 
The opposite colors of the triangle are complementary to each other. Red 
is complementary of green, yellow of purple, blue of orange, and so on 
through the numberless grades of these colors. Now, in order to give the 
greatest value to any color, its complement of the same strength should ac- 
company it. But if a color is to be subdued, put a nearly related color with 
it instead of its complement. For instance to subdue a too yellow face use 
yellow trimmings or gold ornaments but never purple, which is the com- 
plementary color of yellow and intensifies that shade. 

Neutral tints of different shades in combination are all right except that 
they look rather flat and are not especially attractive but when a high color 
is used in a mixture its complement of similar strength or some color nearly 
related to its complement should go with it. Different shades of the same 
color kill each other every time. Red and purple, red and orange, blue and 
green, blue and purple, yellow and orange or yellow and green should never 
go together except to subdue each other. They are first cousins and should 
never wed. If anyone desires to 

Experiment for Himself 
and find the complementary color of any other shade, let him look intently 
for a minute in a strong light at a round spot of any fancy color, then gaze 
at a piece of white paper and he will see its complementary color reflected 
on the paper. In selecting wools for mixtures always choose a free, open 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



335 



wool for the white and the bright, fancy colors. This wool should be some- 
what finer than that which is used for the dark colors. The reason for this 
is that when you use a coarse wool for white and the bright, fancy shades, it 
gives a coarse, hairy appearance to the goods and detracts from the ap- 
pearance of the cloth. Coarser wools may be used in all the dark shades. 
The following are a few of them: 



38% 


Med. blue Indigo. 


40% 


Med. indigo blue. 


38% 


Claret. 


30% 


Bismark brown. 


12% 


Yellow. 


30% 


Yellow. 


12% 


White. 


100% 




100% 












45% 


White. 


50% 


White. 


35% 


Green. 


38% 


Cinnamon brown. 


15% 


Orange. 


12% 


Fawn drab. 


5% 
100% 


Red. 


100% 








38% 


Med. indigo blue. 


67% 


Black. 


22% 


White. 


25% 


Dark plum. 


12% 


Dark yellow brown. 


S% 


Scarlet. 


12% 


Purple. 


100% 




16% 


Bright yellow. 


25% 


Orange. 


100% 




5% 


Bright red. 


17%% 


Canary. 


20% 


White. 


7%% 


Bright blue. 


20% 
30% 


Green, pine tree. 

Tan, light shade oak leaf after frost. 


15% 
15% 


Pine tree green. 
Heather bloom. 


100% 




45% 
100% 


Black. 


15% 


Heather bloom. 






10% 


Od gold. 


10% 


Orange. 


20% 


White. 


25% 


Dark stone drab. 


55% 


Olive, (greenish shade). 


30% 


Heather bloom. 






35% 


Light tan. 




100% 




100% 




20% 


Cinnamon brown. 






12%% 


Dark purple. 


15% 


Old gold. 


10% 


Old gold. 


10% 


Purple. 


57%% 


White. 


15% 


Apple green. 






60% 


Med. navy blue. 


100% 




100% 




15% 


Purple. 






10% 


Old gold. 


20% 


Golden yellow. 


10% 


Apple green. 


45% 


White. 


65% 


White. 


35% 


Black. 



100% 



100% 



In the successful manufacture of these Scotch woolens, whether in the 
fine Saxonies or in the cheviot mixtures, there are a great many points 
throughout each department of the mill which play an important part in the 
appearance of the finished goods. These points, separately, may seem to a 
person who is not trained in the business as trifling and unimportant, but 
collectively they are of great moment, as each particular part contributes 
its share in producing a perfect piece of goods. It is by having a thorough 
knowledge of all these general points that the products of some manufac- 
turers excel so much in the general appearance and handle others who may 
be using the same stock, and, to all intents and purposes, making the same 
class of goods; yet there is a great difference in the finished product, so 
much so that an experienced buyer can lay his hand on the best and say, 
"This is the handle and finish I want." This 

Knowledge of "Small Things" 

can only be acquired by careful attention and close observation through 
many years of practical manufacturing in progressive mills. A successful 



336 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

manufacturer must have a thorough knowledge of wools, not only as to 
grade and quality but should understand the peculiarities and nature of the 
different grades, and how each will card, spin and finish. It is also essen- 
tial to have a good general knowledge of the processes of finishing the va- 
rious fabrics, in order to be able to select and blend the most suitable wools 
for any particular fabric and finish. It is well known to all practical men 
that wools which are suitable for one fabric and finish may be quite inap- 
propriate for another one. For fine mixtures and twists the wools should be 
very carefully selected, as imperfect and faulty wools will cause specks 
in the mixtures and uneven or twitty yarns; but such wools may be used in 
solid or dark colors if the yarns are not to be spun very fine. 
All lots of wool should be graded or sorted into the different lots in or- 
der to get the percentage of each grade, and tests should be made of each 
to find the loss in scouring, so that a manufacturer may know the cost of 
the clean wool of each lot. 

Clean and Lofty Wools Important. 

It is important to have the wools clean and lofty, not only on account of 
the dyeing but for the after processes of carding and spinning, as clean wool 
will dye into more brilliant colors, card more freely, spin to finer counts 
and finish up with a better luster. Wools badly scoured will not take the 
dye evenly, and the colors will be dull and lifeless. In carding, the machines 
will "gum up," the roping will be uneven and twitty, and there will b*j 
a large percentage of waste. Wools well scoured and prepared make easy 
work in the card room and good results in all the after processes. 

By far the best results in wool scouring are obtained by the use of 
potash salts, in fact, no other alkali should be used in wool scouring. This 
is fully borne out by nature, which invariably assimilates the most appro- 
priate substances. The natural grease of the wool consists of nearly half its 
weight of carbonate of potash, hardly a trace of soda being present. The 
difference between the use of potash and soda for this purpose is very mark- 
ed. Potash softens the wool, making it handle lofty, and also to a certain ex- 
tent bleaches or whitens it, while soda has a tendency to make the fibres 
harsh and gives it a dull appearance. 

Let us now pass the carding and spinning of the yarns and turn our 
attention to the 

Design Department 

and its relation to the success of the mill. In order to produce novelty in 
design, a large amount of painstaking work must be bestowed in the ef- 
fort. We have too few designers who can really devote a proper length of 
time to the work, and too few manufacturers who supply the needed stim- 
ulus in the shape of good textile journals and selected patterns from other 
centers of trade. These samples are not for copying, but they give a stim- 
ulus in ideas for color combinations and in fabrication of cloths. There has 
not been much in woven design of late years in Scotch tweeds. The weave 
used has been principally the four-harness twill, and the design has been 
made by the combination of colors and mixtures, enhanced by the skillful 
use of fancy threads for stripe effects, these fancy threads in many cases 
being fine silk yarns, and it is here that skillful arrangement of pattern and 
colors shows to advantage. Harmonious colorings are always wanted, and 
it may be truly said that the first thing the merchant or consumer looks at 
is the color, or the harmony of color, employed in the design, and unless 
this is pleasing to the eye, the fabric however well made will find but an 
indifferent market. Strictly speaking, the buyer purchases the cloth on the 
merits of the colors, the quality, of course, being right, rather than on the 
merits of the weave or the pattern design. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 331 

The Scotch tweed is made both in the fine Saxony wools and in the 
coarser crossbreds and cheviots, but it is more in the cheviot qualities that 
we find the characteristic Scottish mixtures, the coarser lustrous wools 
showing up the rich combination of colors to greater advantage, and in 
some way the quality of the wools harmonize with the general character of 
both color and fabric. But if the same strong colors were used in the mix- 
tures of fine Saxony woolens, the effect would be incongruous, and lacking 
in harmony and adaptability. In the fine Saxony tweed the colors are more 
subdued and softer. The designs are neat and unobtrusive, but there is a 
certain character in the Saxony cloth that is distinctive, and it does not 
need strong or loud mixtures to make it so, but rather the reverse. Scotch 
manufacturers are continually experimenting in new combinations of wools 
to get new effects, and a fine mohair' wool may be used in varying propor- 
tions, also Llama wools, etc. 

Finishing. 

The finishing of Scotch tweeds is a very important part, and requires 
careful attention, as the handle and appearance of the finished product is 
as essential as the color or design, and an unsatisfactory finish would con- 
demn a cloth however good it may be in all other respects. The usual proc- 
ess is to scour the goods before fulling, as this gives a more lofty handle to 
the fabric and brighter colors. A light scouring liquor is best for this pur- 
pose, say about 1% to 2 ounces of soap to the gallon, and this 'may be 
strengthened by adding a few pailfuls of a liquor made up with ammoniated 
potash, which will assure a thorough saponification of all oils, etc., in the 
goods, and allow of its being readily rinsed off. The fulling soap should be 
almost neutral and made up of pure materials. The goods while in the 
process of fulling should be kept cool, very little fulling being needed, as the 
characteristic of the cloth is loftiness and softness of handle, and any excess 
of fulling would render it stiff and boardy. 

In the final scouring, after fulling, use plenty of warm water, not over 
110 degrees, rinsing well, and give a few pints of aqua ammonia in the last 
scouring bath, which will insure the thorough saponification of all fatty 
acids and guarantee bright, snappy colors in the goods. After the soap is 
all rinsed out of the goods, 

Give a Bath of Fuller's Earth, 

which has wonderful softening and cleansing properties that are much ap- 
preciated by all Scottish finishers. The usual proportion is two pailfuls of 
the refined earth to a barrel of water, and use six pailfuls of this solution 
in a four-string washer. Run for 15 to 20 minutes, and rinse well in cold 
water. This treatment will give a very soft and kindly handle to the goods. 
After extracting the goods, roll them up under heavy pressure on a roll, and 
let them lie overnight. Dry next day at as low a temperature as is con- 
sistent with the production of the mill, and before shearing give the pieces 
a good brushing on a steam brush. Do not shear close, cut off any rough 
fibres, but leave all the fine, short nap. Give a good run on the dewing ma- 
chine, and let it lie some hours before pressing. Press medium, and let goods 
lie on roll until cold. 



338 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

SCOTCH SAXONY TWEED. LAYOUT. 

1,920 ends; reed 9% — — — = 66" inside listing + 1" for listing ■ = 67" over all. 
3 4 3 

Warp pattern: Thrds. 

Twist 111111 11 1111111 =15 

White 111111111 1 1 1 l 1 1 1.1 1 =18 

Grey 11 i i =4 

Silk 3 =3 

40 threads in pattern X 8 patterns X 6 sections = 1,920 ends. 

YARNS. 

Twist 5x5 runs, left twist; 50% grey and white, twist right (12 turns). 

White 2 y* runs, right twist. 

Grey 214 runs, right twist, 50% white mix. 

Silk 20/2s white. 

Filling: Black 2% run, spun soft, right twist, crossbred wool. 

720 ends 5x5 run twist = 2 % runs , 

864 ends white = 2% runs 

192 ends grey, 50% = 2% runs 

144 ends white silk = 20/2s 

Filling, 67" X 36 picks = 2,412 h- 2% run 



Plus 10% 



Loom weight 

Finished weight, 15 oz. 

7.89 oz. warp yarn, fine wool + 10% + 15% waste allowance. 

27 oz. warp silk + 10% + 3% waste allowance 

8.77 oz. filling crossbred + 10% + 15% waste allowance 



3.20 


oz. 


3.84 


oz. 


0.85 


oz. 


0.27 


oz. 


8.77 


oz. 


16.93 


oz. 


1.69 


oz. 


18.62 


oz. 


= 10.20 


oz. 


= .31 


oz. 


= 11.34 


oz. 



COST. 

10.20 oz. fine wool @ 56 cents per pound = $ .3570 

.27 oz. silk @ $3 per pound = .0506 

8.77 oz. crossbred @ 44 cents per pound = .2411 



$ .6487 

Manufacturing charges: 36 picks @ 94/100 = .3384 

Extra for twisting = .0124 



Net cost $ .9995 



NOVELTY CHEVIOT DRESS GOODS 

The demand for novelties in fabrics for ladies' wear has led to the use 
of a great variety of unusual and freak yarns in the offerings for the pres- 
ent season. A large proportion of these require the use of special machinery 
in their manufacture and are rendered expensive from the fact that they 
are produced slowly and entail a large number of operations in their prep- 
aration. In the case of the rating and eponge yarns this is particularly 
noticeable, as the loop, or knot, must be made on a special twister and a 
binder thread afterward put on by means of another operation. It will be 
readily understood that each process in the production of a yarn or fabric 
adds materially to the cost of manufacture and must be figured in the price 
of the goods. A large number of the dress goods into which novelty yarns 
are woven 

Have Been Woven in the Grey 

and colored into solid shades, the only unusual feature being the peculiar 
type of yarn from which they are constructed. The fabric chosen for anal- 
ysis here is made from relatively coarse yarns in two-ply of contrasting 
colors. From examination of the finished sample it is impossible to deter- 
mine whether the shades were both made by top-dyeing, or the black was 
top-dyed, twisted with a white, and the fancy color is the result of piece- 
dyeing. The texture of the fabric is somewhat low, counting only 38 threads 
per inch in the warp, with an equal number in the filling. Instead of em- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 339 

ploying a somewhat tighter weave, as is customary in most instances with 
a c.oJi of compaiativeiy low texture, the direct opposite is the case, and 
the six-harness even-sided twill has been used. The result is a rather 
loosely woven cloth, but one that should prove very satisfactory for the uses 
lor which it is intended. 

There are many reasons to suppose the goods are woven black and 
white, with the white colored in the piece. The advantages to be derived 
from this method are many and will be readily appreciated by anyone con- 
versant with manufacturing processes. By this method a larger part of the 
waste made will be in an uncolored condition, thereby commanding a higher 
price and a much more ready sale. A still more important consideration is 
the fact that a great variety of styles can be made from the same warps, 
a fact that means many times the difference between a successful season 
and one that proves unprofitable. By weaving the goods black and white, it 
is possible to put larger quantities of yarn in the warps, which means a 

Saving of Expense in the Spinning 

mill, and this method also permits of better deliveries to customers of 
desirable colors. If the goods are made from slub-dyed yarns, it is neces- 
sary to put in process warps of each shade sold, but by the piece-dyeing 
method it is only necessary to weave the black and white, get them, ready 
for the dyehouse, and color the desired shades as they are needed to fill 
orders. 

The yarns are spun on the Bradford system from crossbred wools of 
good staple, but not particularly high grade. For the goods here described 
a quarter-blood wool was used, probably a South American. After sorting 
and scouring, the stock was carded, put through the slubbing gill boxes and 
placed on a Noble comb. After combing, the top from which the black was 
to be made was put through a gill box and wound into balls ready for the 
dyehouse. In some mills it is still the custom to color tops in a machine 
primarily intended for yarn in the skein, but the great amount of waste 
made and the unsatisfactory results achieved have led to the installation, of 
more modern methods in the majority of plants. One of the most satisfac- 
tory appliances for coloring worsted tops is an arrangement essentially as 
described. The balls are packed in a suitable receptacle around a central 
perforated spindle, and the whole submerged in a tank containing the dye- 
liquor. A pump is piped to the central spindle and forces the hot dye-bath 
through the stock, securing perfect penetration and 
Absolutely Level Dyeing, 
with no injury to the tops, which is more than can be truthfully said of 
some of the processes in use. When the desired shade has been obtained, 
the dye-bath is drawn off, the tops cooled and rinsed in cold water. After 
extracting, the balls of top are sent to the back washer, where they are 
thoroughly cleansed and dried. From the back washer they proceed through 
the necessary gilling process, then into the drawing room, where, by suc- 
cessive doublings and drawings, the fibre is finally made into a roving of the 
size required to spin the yarn necessary for the goods to be made. 

Meantime the white stock has passed through a series of similar opera- 
tions, aside from the dyeing, and has been spun into yarn ready for the 
doubling. In some plants it is customary to double and twist in two opera- 
tions, while in others the trap twister is used, which permits of performing 
both operations on the same machine at one time, a considerable saving in 
labor and expense. In making the two-ply the twist should not exceed 
eight turns per inch. When twisted the yarn should be wound on six-inch 
spools, from which it is transferred to the dresser spool by 

Means of the Inspecting Spooler. 
This differs somewhat from the ordinary type of spooler in that it is op- 
erated at a much lower rate of speed and has between the front and back 



340 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

guides a space of some 20 to 30 inches. In this space is arranged a board 
which is painted to contrast with the yarns to be inspected. Over this the 
yarn travels at a speed which enables the operator to detect imperfections 
and remove them, saving much valuable time in the finishing room, as it 
will be easily understood that imperfect yarn may be removed here much 
more readily than from the woven cloth, and at a materially lower cost. 
The warps are made on a dry dressing frame and transferred directly to 
the loom beam, as there is no danger of chafing and breaking during the 
process of weaving. The use of a 

Warp Compressor 
while beaming is a distinct advantage, as it allows of dressing and beaming 
without undue strain on the yarn and permits of placing a considerably 
greater yardage on the beam than is possible without an appliance of this 
nature. Not only is it a saving in thrums and head ends because of the 
greater length of warp possible to place on a beam, but the warp is ap- 
preciably firmer, weaves better, and has the natural life and elasticity of 
the yarn preserved to a marked degree, making a distinctly better piece 
of goods than can be produced without its use. 

Fabrics of this type are particularly well adapted for weaving on the 
two-loom system, as the yarns are strong, have no tendency to chafe and 
should run with a minimum of breakage from beginning to end of the warp. 
If the loom is well adjusted when the warp is started there should be prac- 
tically no occasion for the fixer to touch it for days at a time, aside from 
the necessity of replacing a broken strap or a part that becomes worn. A 
very important feature that is overlooked by some weavers is the 

Proper Oiling of the Loom. 

Unless this extremely important detail receives attention at proper inter- 
vals it is impossible to get the production that should be had from the 
weave room. In not a few cases it has been found that the chief reason for 
the unsatisfactory wage earned by a weaver is the lack of care given the 
loom and inattention to the proper oiling of the parts. It is impossible for 
any piece of machinery to do satisfactory work if it is allowed to become 
clogged with dirt or stiff from lack of proper lubrication. It is not by any 
means an unknown occurrence for weavers to so mistreat a loom that it 

Becomes Fit for the Scrap Heap, 
while another, bought at the same time and used under practically the same 
conditions, remains, to all intents and purposes, as good as new, simply 
owing to the fact that one has been operated by an intelligent weaver, while 
the other has been abused by an inferior type of operative. 

Under good average conditions it should be possible to attain an ex- 
tremely good production at a low cost for supplies and overhead expense, 
as the looms, preferably 82-inch, may be operated at a speed of 110 picks a 
minute, and should give no trouble at that speed if well cared for. In fact, 
it is common practice to operate 82-inch looms at 120 picks per minute on 
much more difficult fabrics than the type here analyzed. It must not be 
understood from the foregoing that excessive speed is advocated, as it is 
an incontrovertible fact that 

High Speed and Production 
are not in a direct ratio. There are many instances that can be cited to 
prove that a reduction of speed has increased the production. There is a 
point where an increase of speed ceases to mean an increase of output, and 
the skilled overseer will be guided by conditions in his department, in de- 
ciding as to when the limit h?s bepn reached. It would be the height of 
folly to put forward the claim that the looms should be operated at a certain 
speed under every condition. That high speed with strong two-ply warps 
and comparatively easy weaves is feasible cannot be successfully disputed, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 341 

but that the same speed should be used with single or tender warps of fine 
yarns is not to be thought of, and if one has so little good judgment as to 
undejtake it, failure will be the inevitable result of such a trial. As soon 
as convenient, after coming from the looms, the pieces should be measured, 
inspected, the imperfections marked and the necessary memoranda made 
in a book or on sheets provided for the purpose, so that such detailed in- 
formation concerning each piece may be readily available should it become 
desirable to look it up at any time. The burling and mending should re- 
quire but little time, as the goods should be comparatively free from knots, 
slugs or broken threads. 

From the sewing room the pieces are taken to the washer and thor- 
oughly scoured, then put through the crabbing machine and are 

Ready for the Dyehouse. 
There should be no difficulty in bringing the goods out even in color 
and free from shades if the preliminary operations have been carefully 
performed. One of the most common sources of uneven results in the dye- 
house is the crabbing operation, and this should have careful supervision. 
On the completion of the coloring, the pieces phould be cooled off and 
rinsed before they are removed from the dye-kettle, then immediately ex- 
tracted and dried. The drying is usually accomplished by means of a chain 
dryer, which carries the damp cloth into a drying chamber, where the air 
is heated by means of steam pipes. Care should be observed not to dry 
the goods too rapidly, as the handle of the goods is deteriorated by exces- 
sive heat. A single run over the shear is all that will be necessary, then 
the pieces may be brushed, sprayed and pressed. 

LAYOUT. COST. 

2,044 ends; 7% reed, 4 in dent = 64" + n -° 4 ° z - + 7 f° waste = 11 - 87 oz - « cc , c 

1%" for listing = 65.5" over all. ., @ 76c ; P. er lb io • • : • = * -5638 

„- ' , Manufacturing, 38 picks = .2300 

38 picks. _____ 

CALCULATIONS. 
2,044 ends 2/24 worsted = 4.866 oz.' 



Net mill cost $ .7938 

6 harness, straight draw. 



+ 5% take-up ".:v. ::::.:= 5.12 oz. g ■■■■SB 

38X65.5 5 □□■■■n 

18 picks 2/24 = = 5.92 oz. O oarmmm 

24X560-5-2-^-16 ■ « _8Ed55 

Loom weight 11.04 oz. & 



WORSTED SHEPHERD PLAID 



Domestic manufacturers of dress goods are not given the credit they 
deserve in many instances In selling p ^ce sooris over the counter, or re'rtv 
to-wear gowns, many of the sales force are tempted to insinuate, if not to 
state boldly, that the fabrics are the product of foreign manufacturers, 
when, if the truth was known, the cloth or gown in question is entirely a 
domestic production, made from woo's grown in our own country, the yarns 
manufactured by a domestic spinner aid the goods woven in one of our New 
England mills. Fortunately, the wori "foreign" is not of as great weight 
with the consumer as formerly, experience having taught many buyers that 
domestic cloths are as satisfactory and, in many cases, of more 
intrinsic worth than those from abroad. The many buyers who 
have been told so often by the high-priced department stores that 
'these models are all made from imported fabrics" and "it is impossible to 
obtain the beautiful lines of this gown if we use domestic cloths" should 
take these stories with a liberal allowance of salt. In the great majority of 
cases the fabrics are the production of domestic manufacturers, and the 
model was designed in a "studio" on Manhattan Island, The fabric shown 



342 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

herewith is made from a fine territory staple wool, spun to comparatively 
high counts, giving a fine texture with relatively light weight. The use of 
a fine wool not only permits of producing a fine, light-weight cloth, but 
also gives a fabric that lends itself readily to the draped effects that are 
now so popular a feature of garments for women's wear. In addition to this 
very essential feature, it also possesses a particularly soft, silky handle that 
can be obtained only by the use of a fine, well-grown, healthy wool. 

There are many reasons why fabrics of this type are more p'rticularly 
adapted for production in combed than in carded yarns, especially if they 
are to be used in women's apparel. One of the most important is the fact 
that a much lighter-weight cloth may be made, and another is that 
on the worsted system it is possible to produce a thread that is much finer 
than any that can possibly be manufactured without the aid of co^bs, and 
by using these fine yarns it is a comparatively easy matter to produce 

A Cloth «f High Texture, 

which enhances the appearance of the fabric verv materially. T' n en. too. 
the inherent differences in the yarns, made by these two totally dissimilar 
methods of production, have a very decided effect upon the ultimate ap- 
pearance of the finished goods. To one familiar with the procedure in ^ak 
ing worsted and woolen yarns this statement will need nothing in the way 
of confirmation or explanation, but for the enlightenment ^f those "ho have 
never had the pleasure and privilege of seeing the manufacturing processes 
of both systems, a short explanation of each may be of interest. 

In the production of carded, or as they are generally termed "woolen" 
yarns, the operations are few and comparatively simple. The wool is given 
a certain amount of oil, varying with the grade and amount of other stocks 
used in combination, run through the mixing picker, which thoroughly opens 
and mixes the stock, leaving it in first-class condition for the cards. 

Carding Most Important. 

This is possibly the most important department in a woolen mill, al- 
though some of our friends who are dyers and finishers may take exception 
to such a statement. Nevertheless, the extreme importance of good work in 
the card room will be admitted by everyone, as it may be stated with no 
fear of successful contradiction, that careless work in this department 
means greater expense, less production and inferior results in every suc- 
ceeding process. The primary object of carding is to complete the mixing 
and opening of the wool which was begun in the mixing picker, making an 
even and homogeneous hlend of the various colors and stocks, and to red"ce 
the mass of stock to ribbons of suitable size for spinning into thread. The 
fundamental difference between a woolen and worsted thread is th^t in the 
latter there is but little effort toward the paraUelization of the fi- 
bres, while the whole tendency and aim of the worsted system is to pro- 
duce a thread, every fibre of which shall be 

Laid Straight and Parallel 
to each other. In the woolen system, it is the custom to use three cards in 
a set, termed the first breaker, second breaker and finisher. The three ma- 
chines are very similar, and each does its part in practically the same man- 
ner as each of the others, the principal difference being in the manner of 
feeding and delivery. The first breaker is fed by a mechanism that auto- 
matically weighs and delivers to the feed apron the amount of wool requir- 
ed to make the desired size of yarn, and as this is carried into the card by 
the traveling feed apron, another portion of ctock is weighed and deposited 
directly behind the former, so that a continuous feed of even weight is de- 
livered to the feed rolls. The card consists essentially of a main cylinder, 
usually 48 inches in diameter and of the same width, covered with leather 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 343 

or cloth, thickly studded with fine wire similar to the teeth of a comb, which 

engage the stock and carry it forward. At intervals there are set smaller 
rolls, termed workers, also covered with wire clothing, the teeth of which 
also engage the stock and tend to comb it out, laying the fibres nearly par- 
allel. These are, in turn, cleared of the stock by the 

Smaller Strippers, 
which return it to the cylinder, which carries it to the next worker, where a 
similar process takes place. The number of workers varies with the size 
of the card, but is seldom less than five. Behind the last worker a short 
space intervenes, and the stock comes in contact with the "fancy." This 
does no carding, but is designed to raise the stock so that it may be re- 
moved from the main cylinder by the doffer, from which it is taken in a 
flat web by the comb and carried away in rope form by the side drawing 
apparatus. 

The side drawing is fed to the second breaker, where the same proc- 
esses of carding are repeated, and the stock discharged in the same man- 
ner and delivered to the finisher. card. This is sirilar to the first and sec- 
ond breakers, except at the delivery end, where instead of one doffer com- 
pletely covered with wire there are two smaller doffers which have alter- 
nately a circle of wire and an empty space, the wire of the upper doffer be- 
ing opposite the blank space of the lower. From these the stock is removed 
by small rolls covered with corduroy, and the ribbons of stock delivered 

To the Condenser, 

where they receive a rubbing between aprons which have a sidewise re- 
ciprocating motion as well as a constant forward travel. The "roving," as 
it is now called, is wound on spools by a suitable mechanism, and is ready 
for the spinning process, which is invariably performed on mules. It will 
be readily seen that the partial parallelization of the stock during its prog- 
ress through the cards is in a large measure overcome by the effect of re- 
moving it in the form of a side drawing, a motion at right angles to its di- 
rection of travel through the machine itself. On the other hand, the man- 
ufacture of worsted yarn is carried on by a system of machinery that at all 
times retains the fibres in the same relative position. The carding is per- 
formed on a double cylinder card, and the web removed through a station- 
ary trumpet in the direction of motion through the card and wound in a 
ball. These balls of slubbing are placed in a preparing gill box which fur- 
ther straightens the fibres by drawing them through a set of fallers, pro- 
vided with pins which have a combing action on the slubbing. From the 
gill box it goes to the machine, which rolls four ends of slubbing in a ball 
ready tor the comb. The usual type of combs used in domestic mills is the 

"Noble" or "Great Circle" Comb. 

The essential features are suitable carriers for the balls of slubbing and a 
feeding motion which delivers the slubbing to the circle. The great circle 
is set with pins, as are also two smaller circles, set diametrically opposite 
each other, the circumferences of which are nearly in contact with the in- 
ner circumference of the large circle. The slubbing is forced into the pins 
of both circles, and as they revolve at even surface speeds, the long fibres 
of wool are drawn out and removed by a set of aprons in a continuous rib- 
bon of "top." The short fibres, burs and other foreign matter are raised from 
the pins of the circles and fall to the floor. In each succeeding process the 
operation is one of reducing the size of the sliver by drawing it in 
in a straight line, each succeeding machine drawing in the oppo- 
site direction from that immediately preceding, thus tending to make a 
uniform sliver. By means of successive doublings and drawings the sliver 
is reduced to a suitable size of roving to produce a yarn of 



til WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 

the desired size. In. the Bradford system of worsted manufacture, 
here described so briefly, the spinning is usually done on cap or flier 
frames or occasionally on a ring frame, seldom or never on mules, while the 
French system invariably uses mules for the spinning of the yarn. From the 
foregoing it will be seen that woolen and worsted yarns are not, as many 
suppose, spun from different fibres, but are both made from wool by a 

Different System of Manufacture. 

It is impossible to obtain the same effect on the finished goods from 
fabrics woven from the two types of yarns. The woolen system is adapted 
for certain fabrics and the worsted for others, there being no real compar- 
ison between fabrics manufactured from wool and worsted, as each may 
be the best of its type and yet be totally unlike. From the methods used 
in producing the yarns it will be readily understood that for fabrics requir- 
ing definition of pattern, clearness and distinctness of design and color, 
the worsted thread offers advantages that are far beyond those to be had 
from the wool yarn, while for the production of goods, the face and colors 
of which are to be, as our English friends say, melded together, the wool 
thread is unsurpassed, and the effect can hardly be approximated in fabrics 
constructed from combed yarns. 

On the other hand, the use of woolen yarns for the production of fine 
textures in designs that require sharp outlines with clear-cut color figures, 
will result in much inferior effects than are possible to the user of worsted 
in such constructions. The original use of colors in woven design is shroud- 
ed in antiquity, but that the art of dyeing was well known to the ancients 
is attested by their many references to colored fabrics used as clothing and 
for decorative purposes. In the early history of the Jewish people we read 
that the favorite son of Jacob was sold into bondage by his brethren as a 
result of their jealousy, his coat of many colors being the mark of the 
greater regard in which he was held by their father. In more recent times 

The Love of Color 
was exemplified by the figures woven into the blankets and basketry of 
savage races. Each tribe had its emblem woven into their blankets and bas- 
kets or molded into the pottery manufactured by the most primitive of 
methods. A probable survival of this ancient custom is the distinctive tar- 
tans dedicated to the various clans of Scotland. To one familiar with the 
colors and their arrangement in the plaid it is possible not only to name 
the clan but oftentimes the particular branch to which the wearer owes al- 
legiance. The shepherd plaid seemed not to be the insignia of a family 
or clan but to be dedicated to the use of herdsmen of all sections of the 
country. It is the simplest of all in both color and pattern, being no more 
than an even check of black and white, a favorite size being four threads 
of each color in both warp and filling. For men's wear purposes the size 
may be increased to double that number of threads, while in fabrics for 
women's wear it is not uncommon to see the size increased 

To Nearly an Inch 

of each shade. The manufacture of this type of fabric is not especially dif- 
ficult except in one particular. It must not be undertaken except in a mill 
that is kept scrupulously clean, as a spot on the surface of the white will 
show up with startling distinctness. The best effect is obtained by using a 
bleached white with a black that has a distinctly blue tone. Bleaching may 
be done in the skein either with peroxide or with sodium bisulphite, the lat- 
ter method being preferred by many as requiring no special apparatus nor 
training in its use. The dressing and weaving are done in the ordinary m n- 
ner, care being taken that every piece of machinery used is free from iron 
rust, dirt or oil where it may come in contact with the goods. When woven, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Ho 



the pieces must not be allowed to come in contact with the floor, but be 
placed on scrays provided for that purpose. As one old Scotch manager 




Worsted Shepherd Plaid. 



used to say, "Ye'll need tae pit legs under them," and his meaning was not 
only to have them kept from the floor but to hasten them through the va- 
rious processes, not allowing them to lie about in any department, lest they 
become soiled. 

During burling and sewing, the operatives must exercise care to keep 
the goods from the floor, and before placing them in the washer see that it 
is free from any bits of dirty, oily flocks which may have fallen from goods 
previously scoured. The scouring may be done with any standard grade of 
soap, although a tallow soap should not be used, in fact, is never necessary 
for scouring worsteds, and is not tolerated in many finishing rooms. When 
thoroughly clean, extract, but not too dry, then put on the dryer and dry at 
a moderate heat, as too rapid drying has a tendency to give the fabric an 
inferior handle. Brush, shear and take to the fine sewers, who should find 
very little work on goods of this character. After an inspection to see that 
the work of the sewers has been well done, the goods may be brushed, spray- 
ed and pressed, and are then ready for the final examination, preliminary 
to rolling up for market. 

LAYOUT. CALCULATIONS. 

4,032 ends; 15% reed, 4 in dent = 65" 4- 4,032 ends 2/50 = 4.608 oz. + 10% 

1%" for listing = 66%" over all. take-up = 5.12 oz. 

68 picks. 68X66.5 

S . 68 picks 2/50 = = 5.16 oz. 

Dressing: 50X560-^-16-^-2 •- 

2/50 bleached white. . . 32 32 Loom weight 10.28 oz. 

2/50 black 16 16 [ 32 Finished weight 9 oz. 

64 COST. 

* 7 10.28 oz. + 7%% waste = 11.11 oz. 

777" @ 96c. per lb = $ .6666 

*f° Manufacturing, 68 picks = .4000 

. 032 Net mill cost $1.0666 

•Patterns. TSections. 8 harness, straight draw. 

Weave. 

£ Diinniia 
* council 
*. Munumaam 



346 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



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OFojjs A^TOOlv Noils 

170 Summer St., Boston, Mass. 



Clinton H. Scovell & Company 

Certified Public Accountants Industrial Engineers 

44 Central Street, Boston, Mass. 

Constructive Accounting, Audits, Investigations, Costs 

Industrial Engineering 

Special Experience and Important Practical Success With Textiles 





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WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



347 



INDEX 



All Wool Thibet '■ -136 

Angles of Twills 36 

Astrachan Cloaking 256 

Astrachan Cloaking, Cotton Warp 258 

Bannockburns 53 

Beavers 239 

Bedford Cord , 237 

Bedford Cord for Men's Wear 302 

Blue Meltons, Government Standard. .312 

Boy's Suiting 266 

Broadcloths 295 

Cap Goods 113 

Carriage Robes 68 

Cassimere, Fancy 321 

Cass mere, Heavy-weight 96 

Cassimeres 244 

Cerise Cloth . ; 158 

Checked Chinchilla 171 

Cheviot, Fancy Nub 167 

Chinchilla 134 

ChinclU.a, Checked 171 

Clay Worsteds ..; 208 

Cloaking, Astrachan 256 

Cloak ng, Astrachan Cotton Warp 258 

Cloaking, Automobile 70 

Cloaking, Imitation Chinchilla 187 

Cloaking, Ladies' Double-Face 74 

Cloaking, Plaid Back 246 

Corkscrews 209 

Cotton Mixed Cassimeres 283 

Cotton Mixture Thibets 121 

Cotton Warp, Astrachan Cloaking. .;. .258 

Cotton Warp Shirt.ng Flannel 165 

Cotton Worsteds 211 

Covert Cloth 317 

Coverts and Venetians .271 

Crepe Cloth 153 

Cross Dyed Worsted Suitings 162 

Double and Twist Su. tings 224 

Double Cloth Mackinaw 49 

Dress Goods, Brocaded 190 

Dress Goods, F.gured 154 

Dre^s Goods, Novelty Check 184 

Dress Gooas, Noveity Cheviot 338 

Dress Goods Suiting 262 

Duvetyn Suitings 220 

Eponge 140 



Fancy Back Prunella 127 

Fancy Cassimere 321 

Fancy Nub Cheviot 167 

Fancy Twill Knickerbocker Dress 

Goods 315 

Fancy Worsted Suitings for Men's 

Wear 200 

Fancy Worsted, Unfinished 150 

Figured Dress Goods 154 

Fine Fancy Worsted Suiting 325 

Fine Plaid Back Ladies' Cloaking 246 

Fine QuaLty (Men's Wear) Suiting. . .260 
Frieze 66 

Gabardine Dress Goods 233 

Gun Club Checks 328 

Hair Line Dress Goods 57 

Hair Lines for Men's Wear 267 

Hair Line, Wool and Worsted, Three 

Color . . .180 

Heavy-weght Automobile Cloaking... 70 

Heavy-weight Cassimere 96 

Heavy-weight Whipcord 260 

Homespun 86 

Homespun Fabrics 263 

Imitation Astrachan 77 

Imitation Chinchilla, Novelty Cloaking. 187 
Imitation Furs 318 

Juvenile Suits and Trousers 83 

Kerseys 305 

Ladies' Coating Fabric 59 

Ladies' Double-Face Cloaking 74 

Ladies' Double-Face Goods 104 

Ladies' Suitings 254 

Ladies' Suitings 94 

Mackinaw, Double Cloth 49 

Mack naw Fabrics 253 

Medium-weight Boys' Suiting 266 

Meltons 290 

Men's Wear Pencil Stripes H6 

Mixture Overcoatings 62 

Montagnac 145 

Needle Cords 120 

Nxggerheads 199 

Novelty Check Worsted and Cotton 
Dress Goods 184 



348 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS GLOSSARY 



Novelty Cheviot 197 

Novelty Cheviot Dress Goods 338 

Novelty Cloakings 217 

Novelty Cloaking, Irrigation Chin- 
chilla 187 

Outing Flannel 230 

Overcoating, Plaid Back Llama 176 

26-Ounce Cotton and Shoddy Twist 

Overcoating 304 

26-Ounce Twist Overcoating 303 

Pencil Stripe, Unfinished 142 

Piece Dyed Brocaded Dress Goods... 190 

Plaid Back Homespun Cloaking 251 

Plaid Back Llama Overcoating 176 

Poplin, Silk Stripe 148 

Prunella, Fancy Black 127 

Ratines 205 

Ratine Cloaking 310 

Rating Serge 212 

Regatta Stripe Ladie;/ Suit'ng 250 

Russian Novelty Blanket 47 

Russian Twill Dress Goods 90 

Serges 226 

Shepherd Plaids and Tartans 232 

Shirting Flannel, Cotton Warp 165 

Silk Str'pe Poplin 148 

Scotch Tweeds 332 

Tartans 232 

Textile Cost Finding 39 

Textile Fibres 5 

Thibets, All Wool 136 



Thibets, Cotton Mixture 12l| 

Tricots 2131 

Tweeds 91 

Tweeds, Scotch 332 1 

Ulster or Overcoating Cloth S8 

Unfinished Fancy Worsted 150 

Unfinished Pencil Stripe 142 

Uniform Fabrics, Cadet Greys 247 

Velours 203 

Venetians 101 

Vigoureux Printing 33 

Whipcords 195 

Whipcord, Heavy-weight 260 

Wool and Worsted Three Color Hair 

L ne 180 

Woo: Crash 79 

Woolen Novelty Dress Goods 279 

Woolen Suitings 109 

Wool Mixing and Carding 15 

Wool Plush 228 

Wool Sorting and Scouring 10 

Wool Spinning 22 

Worsted Cheviot Cloakings .194 

Worsted Cheviot Men's Wear 196 

Worsted, Cross Dyed 162 

Worsted Diagonal Dress Goods 193 

Worsted Diagonals 131 

Worsted Shepherd Plaid 341 

Worsted Suiting, F.ne Fancy 325 

Worsted Yarn Manufacture 26 

Zibeline Coatings 125 



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